From c3634c4521a02683fe4953f24f03f642ec7e92cb Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Sun, 8 Mar 2026 23:42:02 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 01/15] Initialize dockdash as standalone OSS crate

Rust library for building and pushing OCI container images without Docker.
Includes layer builder, image builder, blob caching, registry push with
auth support, CI/CD workflows, and crates.io release pipeline.

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 .github/workflows/ci.yml      |   62 +
 .github/workflows/release.yml |   35 +
 Cargo.lock                    | 3856 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
 Cargo.toml                    |   46 +
 README.md                     |  182 ++
 examples/basic.rs             |   47 +
 src/blobcache.rs              |  222 ++
 src/error.rs                  |  108 +
 src/image.rs                  | 1554 +++++++++++++
 src/layer.rs                  | 1514 +++++++++++++
 src/lib.rs                    |   52 +
 src/test_utils.rs             |   29 +
 tests/build_push_tests.rs     | 1296 +++++++++++
 13 files changed, 9003 insertions(+)
 create mode 100644 .github/workflows/ci.yml
 create mode 100644 .github/workflows/release.yml
 create mode 100644 Cargo.lock
 create mode 100644 Cargo.toml
 create mode 100644 README.md
 create mode 100644 examples/basic.rs
 create mode 100644 src/blobcache.rs
 create mode 100644 src/error.rs
 create mode 100644 src/image.rs
 create mode 100644 src/layer.rs
 create mode 100644 src/lib.rs
 create mode 100644 src/test_utils.rs
 create mode 100644 tests/build_push_tests.rs

diff --git a/.github/workflows/ci.yml b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..93d5e7d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+name: CI
+
+on:
+  push:
+    branches: [main]
+  pull_request:
+    branches: [main]
+
+env:
+  CARGO_TERM_COLOR: always
+  RUSTFLAGS: "-Dwarnings"
+
+jobs:
+  check:
+    name: Check
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: dtolnay/rust-toolchain@stable
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+      - run: cargo check --all-features
+
+  fmt:
+    name: Format
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: dtolnay/rust-toolchain@stable
+        with:
+          components: rustfmt
+      - run: cargo fmt --all -- --check
+
+  clippy:
+    name: Clippy
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: dtolnay/rust-toolchain@stable
+        with:
+          components: clippy
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+      - run: cargo clippy --all-features -- -D warnings
+
+  test:
+    name: Test
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: dtolnay/rust-toolchain@stable
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+      - run: cargo test
+
+  docs:
+    name: Docs
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: dtolnay/rust-toolchain@stable
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+      - run: cargo doc --no-deps --all-features
+        env:
+          RUSTDOCFLAGS: "-Dwarnings"
diff --git a/.github/workflows/release.yml b/.github/workflows/release.yml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fd683cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/release.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+name: Release
+
+on:
+  push:
+    tags:
+      - "v*"
+
+permissions:
+  contents: write
+
+env:
+  CARGO_TERM_COLOR: always
+
+jobs:
+  publish:
+    name: Publish to crates.io
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: dtolnay/rust-toolchain@stable
+      - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
+      - run: cargo publish
+        env:
+          CARGO_REGISTRY_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.CARGO_REGISTRY_TOKEN }}
+
+  github-release:
+    name: GitHub Release
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    needs: publish
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - name: Create GitHub Release
+        uses: softprops/action-gh-release@v2
+        with:
+          generate_release_notes: true
diff --git a/Cargo.lock b/Cargo.lock
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca23767
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Cargo.lock
@@ -0,0 +1,3856 @@
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+ "zstd-safe",
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+ "zstd-sys",
+]
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+[[package]]
+name = "zstd-sys"
+version = "2.0.16+zstd.1.5.7"
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diff --git a/Cargo.toml b/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0651085
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+[package]
+name = "dockdash"
+version = "0.1.0"
+edition = "2021"
+authors = ["Alien <hello@alien.dev>"]
+description = "Build and push OCI container images without Docker"
+license = "Apache-2.0"
+repository = "https://github.com/alienplatform/dockdash"
+homepage = "https://github.com/alienplatform/dockdash"
+keywords = ["docker", "oci", "container", "image", "buildkit"]
+categories = ["development-tools", "command-line-utilities"]
+readme = "README.md"
+
+[dependencies]
+oci-spec = "0.6.7"
+tar = "0.4"
+sha2 = "0.10"
+serde_json = "1.0"
+ocipkg = "0.3.9"
+tempfile = "3.10"
+oci-tar-builder = "0.4"
+oci-client = { version = "0.15", default-features = false, features = ["rustls-tls-native-roots"] }
+tokio = { version = "1.48", features = ["full"] }
+tracing = "0.1"
+dirs = "6"
+thiserror = "2.0"
+cacache = { version = "13.1", default-features = false, features = ["tokio-runtime", "mmap"] }
+container-registry = { version = "0.3", features = ["test-support"], optional = true }
+async-trait = "0.1"
+zstd = "0.13"
+
+[dev-dependencies]
+bollard = "0.18"
+futures-util = "0.3"
+rand = "0.9"
+rand_distr = "0.5"
+sec = "1"
+container-registry = { version = "0.3", features = ["test-support"] }
+dotenvy = "0.15"
+tracing-test = "0.2"
+tracing-subscriber = "0.3"
+tokio = { version = "1.48", features = ["full", "test-util"] }
+
+[features]
+default = []
+test-utils = ["dep:container-registry"]
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f7fe259
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,182 @@
+<p align="center">
+  <h1 align="center">dockdash</h1>
+  <p align="center">
+    Build and push OCI container images from Rust — no Docker daemon required.
+  </p>
+</p>
+
+<p align="center">
+  <a href="https://crates.io/crates/dockdash"><img src="https://img.shields.io/crates/v/dockdash.svg" alt="crates.io"></a>
+  <a href="https://docs.rs/dockdash"><img src="https://docs.rs/dockdash/badge.svg" alt="docs.rs"></a>
+  <a href="https://github.com/alienplatform/dockdash/actions"><img src="https://github.com/alienplatform/dockdash/actions/workflows/ci.yml/badge.svg" alt="CI"></a>
+  <a href="LICENSE"><img src="https://img.shields.io/badge/license-Apache--2.0-blue.svg" alt="License"></a>
+</p>
+
+---
+
+**Dockdash** is a Rust library for building and pushing OCI-compliant container images — without needing Docker installed. It's fast, lightweight, and works anywhere Rust runs: CI pipelines, serverless functions, CLIs, or embedded tooling.
+
+## Why Dockdash?
+
+- **No Docker daemon** — build images in environments where Docker isn't available (serverless, sandboxed CI, etc.)
+- **Fast** — native Rust performance with zstd layer compression and content-addressable blob caching
+- **Simple API** — intuitive builder pattern to create layers, assemble images, and push to any OCI registry
+- **Multi-arch support** — build images for `amd64`, `arm64`, and other architectures
+- **Layer caching** — content-addressable local blob cache for fast incremental builds
+- **Registry push** — push directly to Docker Hub, ECR, GCR, ACR, GitHub Container Registry, or any OCI-compliant registry
+- **Authentication** — supports anonymous, basic auth, and token-based registry authentication
+
+## Quick Start
+
+Add to your `Cargo.toml`:
+
+```toml
+[dependencies]
+dockdash = "0.1"
+tokio = { version = "1", features = ["full"] }
+```
+
+Build and push an image:
+
+```rust
+use dockdash::{Arch, Image, Layer, PushOptions, Result};
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+
+#[tokio::main]
+async fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    // Create a layer from a local binary
+    let layer = Layer::builder()?
+        .file("./target/release/my-app", "./my-app", Some(0o755))?
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+
+    // Build the OCI image
+    let (image, _) = Image::builder()
+        .from("ubuntu:latest")
+        .platform("linux", &Arch::ARM64)
+        .layer(layer)
+        .entrypoint(vec!["/my-app".to_string()])
+        .output_to(PathBuf::from("image.oci.tar"))
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+
+    // Push to a registry
+    image.push("my-registry.com/my-app:latest", &PushOptions::default()).await?;
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+```
+
+## Features
+
+### Layer Builder
+
+Create layers from files or raw data:
+
+```rust
+// From a file on disk
+let layer = Layer::builder()?
+    .file("./my-binary", "./app/my-binary", Some(0o755))?
+    .build()
+    .await?;
+
+// From raw bytes
+let layer = Layer::builder()?
+    .data("./app/config.toml", config_bytes, None)?
+    .build()
+    .await?;
+
+// Multiple files in one layer
+let layer = Layer::builder()?
+    .file("./binary", "./app/binary", Some(0o755))?
+    .file("./config.toml", "./app/config.toml", None)?
+    .data("./app/version.txt", b"1.0.0", None)?
+    .build()
+    .await?;
+```
+
+### Image Builder
+
+Compose images from a base and custom layers:
+
+```rust
+let (image, diagnostics) = Image::builder()
+    .from("alpine:3.19")
+    .platform("linux", &Arch::Amd64)
+    .layer(app_layer)
+    .layer(config_layer)
+    .entrypoint(vec!["/app/server".to_string()])
+    .working_dir("/app")
+    .build()
+    .await?;
+```
+
+### Blob Caching
+
+Speed up repeated builds with content-addressable caching:
+
+```rust
+use dockdash::BlobCache;
+
+// Default location: ~/.dockdash/cache/blobs
+let cache = BlobCache::new()?;
+
+// Or use a custom cache directory (path is used as-is)
+let cache = BlobCache::with_path("/my/custom/cache".into())?;
+
+let layer = Layer::builder()?
+    .blob_cache(cache.clone())
+    .file("./my-binary", "./app/my-binary", Some(0o755))?
+    .build()
+    .await?;
+
+let (image, _) = Image::builder()
+    .from("alpine:latest")
+    .blob_cache(cache)
+    .layer(layer)
+    .build()
+    .await?;
+```
+
+### Registry Authentication
+
+```rust
+use dockdash::{RegistryAuth, PushOptions, ClientProtocol};
+
+// Anonymous (e.g., ttl.sh)
+let opts = PushOptions::default();
+
+// Basic auth
+let opts = PushOptions {
+    auth: RegistryAuth::Basic("user".into(), "pass".into()),
+    ..Default::default()
+};
+
+// HTTP (for local registries)
+let opts = PushOptions {
+    protocol: ClientProtocol::Http,
+    ..Default::default()
+};
+```
+
+## Use Cases
+
+- **CI/CD pipelines** — build container images without Docker-in-Docker or privileged containers
+- **Serverless functions** — dynamically build and push images from Lambda, Cloud Functions, etc.
+- **CLI tools** — embed container image building into your Rust CLI
+- **Platform tooling** — build images as part of a deployment platform without requiring Docker on the host
+- **Edge computing** — build images on resource-constrained devices
+
+## Testing
+
+```bash
+# Unit tests
+cargo test
+
+# Integration tests (requires Docker for Bollard-based tests)
+cargo test --features test-utils
+```
+
+## License
+
+Licensed under the [Apache License, Version 2.0](LICENSE).
diff --git a/examples/basic.rs b/examples/basic.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2df7e61
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/basic.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+use dockdash::{Arch, Image, Layer, PushOptions, Result};
+use rand::{distr::Alphanumeric, rng, Rng};
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+use tracing::info;
+
+#[tokio::main(flavor = "multi_thread")]
+async fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    tracing_subscriber::fmt()
+        .with_max_level(tracing::Level::INFO)
+        .init();
+
+    // 1. Create a layer with your application binary
+    let layer = Layer::builder()?
+        .file("./target/release/my-app", "./my-app", Some(0o755))?
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!(diff_id = %layer.diff_id(), blob_digest = %layer.blob_digest(), "Layer created.");
+
+    // 2. Build the OCI image
+    info!("Building image...");
+
+    let (image, _) = Image::builder()
+        .from("ubuntu:latest")
+        .platform("linux", &Arch::ARM64)
+        .layer(layer)
+        .entrypoint(vec!["/my-app".to_string()])
+        .output_to(PathBuf::from("image.oci.tar"))
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!(path = %image.path().display(), config_digest = %image.config_digest(), "Image built.");
+
+    // 3. Push to ttl.sh (anonymous, ephemeral registry — great for testing)
+    info!("Pushing image to ttl.sh...");
+
+    let tag: String = rng()
+        .sample_iter(&Alphanumeric)
+        .take(8)
+        .map(char::from)
+        .collect::<String>()
+        .to_lowercase();
+    let image_name = format!("ttl.sh/dockdash-example-{}:1h", tag);
+
+    let pushed = image.push(&image_name, &PushOptions::default()).await?;
+
+    info!("Image pushed to {} (expires in ~1 hour)", pushed);
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/src/blobcache.rs b/src/blobcache.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f9e9e3e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/blobcache.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,222 @@
+use crate::error::{Error, Result};
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+use tracing::{debug, info, warn};
+
+const DEFAULT_CACHE_SUBDIR: &str = ".dockdash/cache/blobs";
+
+/// Manages access to a content-addressable blob cache on disk.
+///
+/// The cache is used to avoid re-uploading or re-compressing layers that
+/// have already been built. By default, the cache lives at
+/// `~/.dockdash/cache/blobs`, but you can point it at any directory with
+/// [`BlobCache::with_path`].
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```no_run
+/// use dockdash::BlobCache;
+///
+/// // Use the default location (~/.dockdash/cache/blobs)
+/// let cache = BlobCache::new().unwrap();
+///
+/// // Use a custom directory
+/// let cache = BlobCache::with_path("/tmp/my-cache".into()).unwrap();
+/// ```
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct BlobCache {
+    cache_path: PathBuf,
+}
+
+impl BlobCache {
+    /// Creates a new `BlobCache` using the default cache location
+    /// (`~/.dockdash/cache/blobs`, or `/tmp/.dockdash/cache/blobs` in
+    /// constrained environments).
+    pub fn new() -> Result<Self> {
+        let path = if let Some(home) = dirs::home_dir() {
+            let home_cache_path = home.join(DEFAULT_CACHE_SUBDIR);
+            if let Some(parent) = home_cache_path.parent() {
+                match std::fs::create_dir_all(parent) {
+                    Ok(_) => home_cache_path,
+                    Err(e) => {
+                        warn!(
+                            "Home directory is not writable ({}), falling back to /tmp",
+                            e
+                        );
+                        PathBuf::from("/tmp").join(DEFAULT_CACHE_SUBDIR)
+                    }
+                }
+            } else {
+                PathBuf::from("/tmp").join(DEFAULT_CACHE_SUBDIR)
+            }
+        } else {
+            warn!("Could not determine home directory, using /tmp");
+            PathBuf::from("/tmp").join(DEFAULT_CACHE_SUBDIR)
+        };
+
+        Self::init(path)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a new `BlobCache` at the given directory path.
+    ///
+    /// The directory will be created if it does not exist. The path is used
+    /// as-is — no subdirectory is appended.
+    ///
+    /// This is useful when you want full control over the cache location, for
+    /// example to share a cache across tools or to place it alongside project
+    /// artifacts.
+    ///
+    /// ```no_run
+    /// # use dockdash::BlobCache;
+    /// let cache = BlobCache::with_path("/var/cache/my-tool/blobs".into()).unwrap();
+    /// ```
+    pub fn with_path(path: PathBuf) -> Result<Self> {
+        info!(cache_path = %path.display(), "Initializing BlobCache with custom path.");
+        Self::init(path)
+    }
+
+    fn init(path: PathBuf) -> Result<Self> {
+        debug!("Cache directory: {}", path.display());
+        if !path.exists() {
+            info!("Creating cache directory at: {}", path.display());
+            std::fs::create_dir_all(&path).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                message: format!("Failed to create cache directory: {}", path.display()),
+                source: e,
+            })?;
+        }
+        Ok(Self { cache_path: path })
+    }
+
+    /// Retrieves a blob from the cache by its digest.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `Ok(Some(data))` if the blob is found, `Ok(None)` if not.
+    pub async fn get_blob(&self, digest: &str) -> Result<Option<Vec<u8>>> {
+        debug!(blob_digest = %digest, cache_path = %self.cache_path.display(), "Looking up blob in cache.");
+        match cacache::read(&self.cache_path, digest).await {
+            Ok(data) => {
+                info!(blob_digest = %digest, "Blob found in cache.");
+                Ok(Some(data))
+            }
+            Err(cacache::Error::EntryNotFound(_, _)) => Ok(None),
+            Err(e) => {
+                warn!(blob_digest = %digest, error = %e, "Failed to read blob from cache.");
+                Err(Error::Cache {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to read blob '{}' from cache at {}",
+                        digest,
+                        self.cache_path.display()
+                    ),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                })
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Stores a blob in the cache.
+    pub async fn put_blob(&self, digest: &str, data: &[u8]) -> Result<()> {
+        debug!(blob_digest = %digest, size = data.len(), "Storing blob in cache.");
+        cacache::write(&self.cache_path, digest, data)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                warn!(blob_digest = %digest, error = %e, "Failed to write blob to cache.");
+                Error::Cache {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to write blob '{}' to cache at {}",
+                        digest,
+                        self.cache_path.display()
+                    ),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                }
+            })?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Removes a blob from the cache.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `Ok(())` even if the blob was not found.
+    pub async fn remove_blob(&self, digest: &str) -> Result<()> {
+        debug!(blob_digest = %digest, "Removing blob from cache.");
+        match cacache::remove(&self.cache_path, digest).await {
+            Ok(_) => Ok(()),
+            Err(cacache::Error::EntryNotFound(_, _)) => Ok(()),
+            Err(e) => {
+                warn!(blob_digest = %digest, error = %e, "Failed to remove blob from cache.");
+                Err(Error::Cache {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to remove blob '{}' from cache at {}",
+                        digest,
+                        self.cache_path.display()
+                    ),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                })
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use tempfile::tempdir;
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_put_get_blob() -> Result<()> {
+        let temp_dir = tempdir().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "Failed to create temp dir".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let cache = BlobCache::with_path(temp_dir.path().to_path_buf())?;
+
+        let digest = "sha256:testdigest123";
+        let data = b"hello cache data";
+
+        cache.put_blob(digest, data).await?;
+
+        let retrieved_data = cache.get_blob(digest).await?.expect("Blob should be found");
+        assert_eq!(retrieved_data, data);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_get_non_existent_blob() -> Result<()> {
+        let temp_dir = tempdir().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "Failed to create temp dir".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let cache = BlobCache::with_path(temp_dir.path().to_path_buf())?;
+
+        let digest = "sha256:nonexistent123";
+        let retrieved_data = cache.get_blob(digest).await?;
+        assert!(retrieved_data.is_none());
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_put_remove_get_blob() -> Result<()> {
+        let temp_dir = tempdir().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "Failed to create temp dir".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let cache = BlobCache::with_path(temp_dir.path().to_path_buf())?;
+
+        let digest = "sha256:toberemoved456";
+        let data = b"this will be removed";
+
+        cache.put_blob(digest, data).await?;
+        let retrieved_data_before_remove = cache
+            .get_blob(digest)
+            .await?
+            .expect("Blob should be found before remove");
+        assert_eq!(retrieved_data_before_remove, data);
+
+        cache.remove_blob(digest).await?;
+        let retrieved_data_after_remove = cache.get_blob(digest).await?;
+        assert!(retrieved_data_after_remove.is_none());
+
+        // Removing again should be fine
+        cache.remove_blob(digest).await?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/error.rs b/src/error.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fd0b458
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/error.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
+use thiserror::Error;
+
+/// Represents application-specific errors.
+#[derive(Error, Debug)]
+#[non_exhaustive]
+pub enum Error {
+    /// A fallback error type when no variant matches
+    #[error("Generic error: {message}{}", source.as_ref().map(|e| format!(": {e}")).unwrap_or_default())]
+    Generic {
+        /// The error message
+        message: String,
+        /// The wrapped error if available.
+        source: Option<Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync + 'static>>,
+    },
+
+    #[error("I/O error: {message}: {source}")]
+    Io {
+        message: String,
+        #[source]
+        source: std::io::Error,
+    },
+
+    #[error("Task join error: {message}: {source}")]
+    Join {
+        message: String,
+        #[source]
+        source: tokio::task::JoinError,
+    },
+
+    #[error("Image pull error for '{image_ref}': {message}{}", source.as_ref().map(|e| format!(": {}", e)).unwrap_or_default())]
+    ImagePull {
+        image_ref: String,
+        message: String,
+        #[source]
+        source: Option<Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync + 'static>>,
+    },
+
+    #[error("Image configuration error: {message}{}", source.as_ref().map(|e| format!(": {}", e)).unwrap_or_default())]
+    ImageConfig {
+        message: String,
+        #[source]
+        source: Option<Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync + 'static>>,
+    },
+
+    #[error("OCI archive build error: {message}{}", source.as_ref().map(|e| format!(": {}", e)).unwrap_or_default())]
+    OciArchive {
+        message: String,
+        #[source]
+        source: Option<Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync + 'static>>,
+    },
+
+    #[error("Cache error: {message}{}", source.as_ref().map(|e| format!(": {}", e)).unwrap_or_default())]
+    Cache {
+        message: String,
+        #[source]
+        source: Option<Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync + 'static>>,
+    },
+
+    #[error("Invalid path specified: {message}")]
+    InvalidPath { message: String },
+}
+
+pub type Result<T, E = Error> = std::result::Result<T, E>;
+
+impl From<std::io::Error> for Error {
+    fn from(err: std::io::Error) -> Self {
+        Error::Io {
+            message: err.to_string(),
+            source: err,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Error {
+    /// Checks if this error is due to a manifest not being found in the registry.
+    /// This is used to determine if we should retry with a fallback base image.
+    pub fn is_manifest_not_found(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Error::ImagePull { source, .. } => {
+                if let Some(source) = source {
+                    // Try to downcast to OciDistributionError
+                    if let Some(oci_err) =
+                        source.downcast_ref::<oci_client::errors::OciDistributionError>()
+                    {
+                        return is_oci_manifest_not_found(oci_err);
+                    }
+                }
+                false
+            }
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Helper function to check if an OciDistributionError indicates a manifest not found
+fn is_oci_manifest_not_found(error: &oci_client::errors::OciDistributionError) -> bool {
+    match error {
+        oci_client::errors::OciDistributionError::RegistryError { envelope, .. } => {
+            // Check if any of the errors in the envelope is ManifestUnknown
+            envelope
+                .errors
+                .iter()
+                .any(|e| matches!(e.code, oci_client::errors::OciErrorCode::ManifestUnknown))
+        }
+        oci_client::errors::OciDistributionError::ImageManifestNotFoundError(_) => true,
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/image.rs b/src/image.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3a01d92
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/image.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1554 @@
+use crate::blobcache;
+use crate::error::{Error, Result};
+use crate::layer::Layer;
+use async_trait::async_trait;
+
+use oci_client::{
+    client::{
+        Client, ClientConfig, ClientProtocol, Config as OciClientConfig, ImageData as OciImageData,
+        ImageLayer as OciImageLayer,
+    },
+    errors::OciDistributionError,
+    manifest::{ImageIndexEntry, OciImageManifest},
+    secrets::RegistryAuth,
+    Reference, RegistryOperation,
+};
+
+/// OCI media type for zstd-compressed tar layers
+const IMAGE_LAYER_ZSTD_MEDIA_TYPE: &str = "application/vnd.oci.image.layer.v1.tar+zstd";
+use oci_spec::image::Arch;
+use oci_spec::image::{ImageConfiguration, ImageManifest as SpecImageManifest};
+use ocipkg::image::Image as _;
+use ocipkg::image::OciArtifact;
+use sha2::{Digest, Sha256};
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::env;
+use std::fs as std_fs;
+use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
+use tempfile::TempDir;
+use tracing::{debug, info, instrument, warn};
+
+/// Runtime metadata extracted from an OCI image configuration.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct ImageMetadata {
+    /// Entrypoint from the image config
+    pub entrypoint: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    /// Cmd from the image config
+    pub cmd: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    /// Working directory from the image config
+    pub working_dir: Option<String>,
+}
+
+impl ImageMetadata {
+    /// Gets the full runtime command (entrypoint + cmd concatenated).
+    /// This is what should actually be executed.
+    pub fn runtime_command(&self) -> Vec<String> {
+        let mut command = Vec::new();
+        if let Some(ref entrypoint) = self.entrypoint {
+            command.extend(entrypoint.iter().cloned());
+        }
+        if let Some(ref cmd) = self.cmd {
+            command.extend(cmd.iter().cloned());
+        }
+        command
+    }
+}
+
+/// Progress information for image push operations
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct PushProgressInfo {
+    /// Current operation being performed
+    pub operation: String,
+    /// Number of layers uploaded so far
+    pub layers_uploaded: usize,
+    /// Total number of layers to upload
+    pub total_layers: usize,
+    /// Bytes uploaded so far
+    pub bytes_uploaded: u64,
+    /// Total bytes to upload
+    pub total_bytes: u64,
+}
+
+/// Trait for receiving progress updates during image push operations
+#[async_trait]
+pub trait PushProgressCallback: Send + Sync {
+    /// Called when progress is updated
+    async fn on_progress(&self, progress: PushProgressInfo);
+}
+
+/// Policy for determining whether to use monolithic push.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Default)]
+pub enum MonolithicPushPolicy {
+    /// Automatically determine based on the registry hostname.
+    /// Uses monolithic push for registries known to require it (e.g., Google Artifact Registry).
+    #[default]
+    Auto,
+    /// Always use monolithic push.
+    Always,
+    /// Never use monolithic push (use chunked upload).
+    Never,
+}
+
+/// Options for pushing an image.
+pub struct PushOptions {
+    /// The authentication details for the registry.
+    pub auth: RegistryAuth,
+    /// The protocol to use for communicating with the registry.
+    pub protocol: ClientProtocol,
+    /// The policy for determining whether to use monolithic push.
+    pub monolithic_push: MonolithicPushPolicy,
+    /// Optional progress callback
+    pub progress_callback: Option<Box<dyn PushProgressCallback>>,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for PushOptions {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("PushOptions")
+            .field("auth", &self.auth)
+            .field("protocol", &self.protocol)
+            .field("monolithic_push", &self.monolithic_push)
+            .field("progress_callback", &self.progress_callback.is_some())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Clone for PushOptions {
+    fn clone(&self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            auth: self.auth.clone(),
+            protocol: self.protocol.clone(),
+            monolithic_push: self.monolithic_push.clone(),
+            progress_callback: None, // Can't clone trait objects, so we set to None
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for PushOptions {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            auth: RegistryAuth::Anonymous,
+            protocol: ClientProtocol::Https,
+            monolithic_push: MonolithicPushPolicy::Auto,
+            progress_callback: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PushOptions {
+    /// Sets the monolithic push policy to always use monolithic push.
+    pub fn with_monolithic_push(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.monolithic_push = MonolithicPushPolicy::Always;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the monolithic push policy to never use monolithic push (use chunked upload).
+    pub fn with_chunked_upload(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.monolithic_push = MonolithicPushPolicy::Never;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the monolithic push policy to automatically determine based on the registry.
+    pub fn with_auto_push_mode(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.monolithic_push = MonolithicPushPolicy::Auto;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets a progress callback to receive push progress updates.
+    pub fn with_progress_callback(mut self, callback: Box<dyn PushProgressCallback>) -> Self {
+        self.progress_callback = Some(callback);
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+/// Defines the policy for pulling an image manifest.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Default)]
+pub enum PullPolicy {
+    /// Always attempt to pull the image manifest from the registry.
+    Always,
+    /// Pull the image manifest only if it's not available in the local cache.
+    #[default]
+    Missing,
+}
+
+/// Indicates the source from which an image manifest was obtained during a build.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum ManifestSource {
+    /// The manifest was successfully loaded from the local cache.
+    FromCache,
+    /// The manifest was pulled from the remote registry.
+    FromRegistry,
+    /// Not applicable - building from scratch without a base image.
+    NotApplicable,
+}
+
+/// Contains diagnostic information about the image build process.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct BuildDiagnostics {
+    /// How the base image manifest was obtained.
+    pub manifest_source: ManifestSource,
+    /// The digest of the resolved manifest that was used for the build.
+    pub resolved_manifest_digest: String,
+}
+
+/// Options for pulling and extracting an image.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+pub struct PullAndExtractOptions {
+    /// The platform OS to pull (e.g., "linux")
+    pub platform_os: Option<String>,
+    /// The platform architecture to pull (e.g., Arch::Amd64)
+    pub platform_arch: Option<Arch>,
+    /// Pull policy for the image manifest
+    pub pull_policy: PullPolicy,
+    /// Optional blob cache to use
+    pub blob_cache: Option<blobcache::BlobCache>,
+    /// Optional authentication for the registry
+    pub auth: Option<RegistryAuth>,
+}
+
+/// Represents a built OCI image stored as an OCI layout tarball.
+/// The temporary directory holding the tarball is cleaned up when this struct is dropped.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct Image {
+    oci_archive_path: PathBuf,
+    config_digest: String,
+    // Holds the temporary directory to ensure it's cleaned up on drop,
+    // if the image was built into a temporary location.
+    // If None, the oci_archive_path points to a user-specified persistent location.
+    _temp_dir_manager: Option<TempDir>,
+}
+
+impl Image {
+    /// Returns a builder to construct an `Image`.
+    pub fn builder() -> ImageBuilder {
+        ImageBuilder::default()
+    }
+
+    /// Loads an existing OCI tarball from disk.
+    ///
+    /// This is useful for pushing pre-built images without rebuilding them.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    /// * `tarball_path` - Path to the OCI tarball file
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    /// A loaded Image instance on success
+    #[instrument(fields(tarball_path = %tarball_path.as_ref().display()))]
+    pub fn from_tarball(tarball_path: impl AsRef<Path>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let tarball_path = tarball_path.as_ref();
+
+        if !tarball_path.exists() {
+            return Err(Error::Generic {
+                message: format!("OCI tarball not found at {}", tarball_path.display()),
+                source: None,
+            });
+        }
+
+        info!("Loading OCI image from tarball: {}", tarball_path.display());
+
+        // Load the OCI artifact to get the config digest
+        let mut archive =
+            OciArtifact::from_oci_archive(tarball_path).map_err(|e| Error::OciArchive {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to load OCI artifact from {}",
+                    tarball_path.display()
+                ),
+                source: Some(e.into()),
+            })?;
+
+        let (config_desc, _config_bytes) = archive.get_config().map_err(|e| Error::OciArchive {
+            message: "Failed to get config from OCI artifact".to_string(),
+            source: Some(e.into()),
+        })?;
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            oci_archive_path: tarball_path.to_path_buf(),
+            config_digest: config_desc.digest().to_string(),
+            _temp_dir_manager: None, // Not owned by us, user manages the tarball
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Pulls an OCI image from a registry and extracts it to a directory.
+    ///
+    /// This is a convenience method that combines pulling and extracting.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    /// * `image_ref` - Image reference (e.g., "ghcr.io/user/image:tag")
+    /// * `target_dir` - Directory where the image should be extracted
+    /// * `options` - Pull and extract options
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    /// Tuple of (extracted_path, metadata) on success
+    #[instrument(skip(options), fields(image_ref = %image_ref, target_dir = %target_dir.as_ref().display()))]
+    pub async fn pull_and_extract(
+        image_ref: &str,
+        target_dir: impl AsRef<Path>,
+        options: PullAndExtractOptions,
+    ) -> Result<(PathBuf, ImageMetadata)> {
+        info!("Pulling and extracting image.");
+
+        // Build the image (pulls from registry, uses cache)
+        let mut builder = Image::builder()
+            .from(image_ref)
+            .pull_policy(options.pull_policy);
+
+        if let Some(os) = options.platform_os {
+            if let Some(arch) = options.platform_arch {
+                builder = builder.platform(&os, &arch);
+            }
+        }
+
+        if let Some(cache) = options.blob_cache {
+            builder = builder.blob_cache(cache);
+        }
+
+        if let Some(auth) = options.auth {
+            builder = builder.auth(auth);
+        }
+
+        let (image, _diagnostics) = builder.build().await?;
+
+        // Extract the image
+        image.extract(target_dir).await
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the path to the OCI archive tarball.
+    pub fn path(&self) -> &Path {
+        &self.oci_archive_path
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the digest of the image configuration.
+    pub fn config_digest(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.config_digest
+    }
+
+    /// Gets runtime metadata from the OCI image config.
+    ///
+    /// Extracts the entrypoint, cmd, and working directory from the image configuration.
+    /// If you're planning to extract the image anyway, use `extract()` instead which
+    /// returns metadata without an extra tar read.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    /// ImageMetadata containing entrypoint, cmd, and working_dir
+    pub fn get_metadata(&self) -> Result<ImageMetadata> {
+        Self::read_metadata_from_oci_archive(self.path())
+    }
+
+    /// Internal helper to read metadata from an OCI archive.
+    fn read_metadata_from_oci_archive(path: &Path) -> Result<ImageMetadata> {
+        let mut archive = OciArtifact::from_oci_archive(path).map_err(|e| Error::OciArchive {
+            message: format!("Failed to load OCI artifact from {}", path.display()),
+            source: Some(e.into()),
+        })?;
+
+        let (_config_desc, config_bytes) = archive.get_config().map_err(|e| Error::OciArchive {
+            message: "Failed to get config from OCI artifact".to_string(),
+            source: Some(e.into()),
+        })?;
+
+        let config: ImageConfiguration =
+            serde_json::from_slice(&config_bytes).map_err(|e| Error::ImageConfig {
+                message: "Failed to parse image configuration".to_string(),
+                source: Some(e.into()),
+            })?;
+
+        let entrypoint;
+        let cmd;
+        let working_dir;
+
+        if let Some(process_config) = config.config() {
+            entrypoint = process_config.entrypoint().clone();
+            cmd = process_config.cmd().clone();
+            working_dir = process_config.working_dir().clone();
+        } else {
+            entrypoint = None;
+            cmd = None;
+            working_dir = None;
+        }
+
+        Ok(ImageMetadata {
+            entrypoint,
+            cmd,
+            working_dir,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Extracts the OCI image to a directory and returns runtime metadata.
+    ///
+    /// All layers are extracted in order, with later layers overwriting earlier ones.
+    /// This creates a merged filesystem view of the container image.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    /// * `target_dir` - Directory where the image should be extracted
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    /// Tuple of (extracted_path, metadata) on success
+    #[instrument(skip(self), fields(image_path = %self.oci_archive_path.display(), target_dir = %target_dir.as_ref().display()))]
+    pub async fn extract(&self, target_dir: impl AsRef<Path>) -> Result<(PathBuf, ImageMetadata)> {
+        let target_dir = target_dir.as_ref();
+        info!("Starting image extraction.");
+
+        // Create target directory if it doesn't exist
+        std_fs::create_dir_all(target_dir).map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Failed to create target directory.");
+            Error::Io {
+                message: format!("Failed to create target directory {}", target_dir.display()),
+                source: e,
+            }
+        })?;
+
+        // Load OCI artifact from the archive (single tar read for both metadata and layers)
+        info!(path = %self.path().display(), "Loading OCI artifact for extraction.");
+        let mut archive = OciArtifact::from_oci_archive(self.path()).map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(path = %self.path().display(), error = %e, "Failed to load OCI artifact.");
+            Error::OciArchive {
+                message: format!("Failed to load OCI artifact from {}", self.path().display()),
+                source: Some(e.into()),
+            }
+        })?;
+
+        // Extract metadata from config before extracting layers
+        let (_config_desc, config_bytes) = archive.get_config().map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Failed to get config from OCI artifact.");
+            Error::OciArchive {
+                message: "Failed to get config from OCI artifact".to_string(),
+                source: Some(e.into()),
+            }
+        })?;
+
+        let config: ImageConfiguration =
+            serde_json::from_slice(&config_bytes).map_err(|e| Error::ImageConfig {
+                message: "Failed to parse image configuration".to_string(),
+                source: Some(e.into()),
+            })?;
+
+        let metadata = if let Some(process_config) = config.config() {
+            ImageMetadata {
+                entrypoint: process_config.entrypoint().clone(),
+                cmd: process_config.cmd().clone(),
+                working_dir: process_config.working_dir().clone(),
+            }
+        } else {
+            ImageMetadata {
+                entrypoint: None,
+                cmd: None,
+                working_dir: None,
+            }
+        };
+
+        // Get all layers
+        let layers = archive.get_layers().map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Failed to get layers from OCI artifact.");
+            Error::OciArchive {
+                message: "Failed to get layers from OCI artifact".to_string(),
+                source: Some(e.into()),
+            }
+        })?;
+
+        info!(
+            num_layers = layers.len(),
+            "Extracting layers to target directory."
+        );
+
+        // Extract each layer in order (first layer first, last layer last)
+        // Later layers overwrite earlier ones, simulating a union filesystem
+        for (idx, (desc, layer_data)) in layers.iter().enumerate() {
+            debug!(
+                layer_idx = idx,
+                layer_digest = %desc.digest(),
+                layer_size = layer_data.len(),
+                "Extracting layer"
+            );
+
+            // Clone data for the blocking task
+            let layer_data_vec = layer_data.to_vec();
+            let target_dir_clone = target_dir.to_path_buf();
+            let layer_digest = desc.digest().to_string();
+
+            // Extract in a blocking task since tar extraction is CPU-intensive
+            tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || -> Result<()> {
+                use std::io::Cursor;
+                use tar::Archive;
+
+                // Decompress zstd
+                let cursor = Cursor::new(layer_data_vec);
+                let decoder = zstd::Decoder::new(cursor).map_err(|e| {
+                    warn!(
+                        layer_digest = %layer_digest,
+                        error = %e,
+                        "Failed to create zstd decoder"
+                    );
+                    Error::Io {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Failed to create zstd decoder for layer {}",
+                            layer_digest
+                        ),
+                        source: e,
+                    }
+                })?;
+
+                // Extract tar
+                let mut tar_archive = Archive::new(decoder);
+                tar_archive.unpack(&target_dir_clone).map_err(|e| {
+                    warn!(
+                        layer_digest = %layer_digest,
+                        error = %e,
+                        "Failed to extract tar archive"
+                    );
+                    Error::Io {
+                        message: format!("Failed to extract layer {}", layer_digest),
+                        source: e,
+                    }
+                })?;
+
+                debug!(layer_digest = %layer_digest, "Layer extracted successfully");
+                Ok(())
+            })
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                warn!(error = %e, "Task join error during layer extraction.");
+                Error::Generic {
+                    message: "Task join error during layer extraction".to_string(),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                }
+            })??;
+        }
+
+        info!(
+            target_dir = %target_dir.display(),
+            num_layers = layers.len(),
+            "Image extraction completed successfully"
+        );
+
+        Ok((target_dir.to_path_buf(), metadata))
+    }
+
+    /// Pushes the OCI image to a remote registry.
+    ///
+    /// - `target_image_ref_str`: The full reference of the target image (e.g., "ghcr.io/user/image:tag").
+    /// - `options`: Push options including authentication and protocol.
+    ///
+    /// Returns the pushed image reference string on success.
+    #[instrument(skip(self, options), fields(image_path = %self.oci_archive_path.display(), target_image_ref = %target_image_ref_str, protocol = ?options.protocol))]
+    pub async fn push(&self, target_image_ref_str: &str, options: &PushOptions) -> Result<String> {
+        info!("Starting image push.");
+
+        // Helper function to report progress
+        let report_progress = |progress: PushProgressInfo| async {
+            if let Some(ref callback) = options.progress_callback {
+                callback.on_progress(progress).await;
+            }
+        };
+
+        // Initial progress report
+        report_progress(PushProgressInfo {
+            operation: "Starting push".to_string(),
+            layers_uploaded: 0,
+            total_layers: 0,
+            bytes_uploaded: 0,
+            total_bytes: 0,
+        })
+        .await;
+
+        // 1. Parse the target reference
+        let push_ref = Reference::try_from(target_image_ref_str).map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Invalid target image reference format.");
+            Error::Generic {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Invalid target image reference format '{}': {}",
+                    target_image_ref_str, e
+                ),
+                source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+            }
+        })?;
+        debug!(push_reference = %push_ref, "Parsed target image reference.");
+
+        // 2. Determine monolithic push setting based on policy and registry
+        let use_monolithic_push =
+            determine_use_monolithic_push(&options.monolithic_push, &push_ref);
+
+        let push_client_config = ClientConfig {
+            protocol: options.protocol.clone(),
+            use_monolithic_push,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let oci_client = Client::new(push_client_config);
+        debug!(
+            use_monolithic_push = use_monolithic_push,
+            "OCI client for push created."
+        );
+
+        // 3. Load OCI artifact from self.oci_archive_path
+        info!(path = %self.path().display(), "Loading OCI artifact for push.");
+        let mut archive = OciArtifact::from_oci_archive(self.path()).map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(path = %self.path().display(), error = %e, "Failed to load OCI artifact.");
+            Error::OciArchive {
+                message: format!("Failed to load OCI artifact from {}", self.path().display()),
+                source: Some(e.into()),
+            }
+        })?;
+
+        // 4. Convert manifest (ocipkg -> oci_spec -> json -> oci_client)
+        debug!("Converting OCI manifest for client.");
+        let spec_mani: SpecImageManifest = archive.get_manifest().map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Failed to get manifest from OCI artifact.");
+            Error::OciArchive {
+                message: "Failed to get manifest from OCI artifact".to_string(),
+                source: Some(e.into()),
+            }
+        })?;
+        let mani_json_bytes = serde_json::to_vec(&spec_mani).map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Failed to serialize spec manifest to JSON.");
+            Error::ImageConfig {
+                message: "Failed to serialize spec manifest to JSON".to_string(),
+                source: Some(e.into()),
+            }
+        })?;
+        let dist_mani: OciImageManifest =
+            serde_json::from_slice(&mani_json_bytes).map_err(|e| {
+                warn!(error = %e, "Failed to deserialize OCI client manifest from JSON.");
+                Error::ImageConfig {
+                    message: "Failed to deserialize OCI client manifest from JSON".to_string(),
+                    source: Some(e.into()),
+                }
+            })?;
+        debug!("OCI manifest converted.");
+        debug!(
+            num_dist_mani_layers = dist_mani.layers.len(),
+            dist_mani_layers_digests = ?dist_mani.layers.iter().map(|l| l.digest.as_str()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            "Details of dist_mani (the manifest to be pushed)"
+        );
+
+        // 5. Prepare config for oci_client
+        debug!("Preparing image config for OCI client.");
+        let (cfg_desc, cfg_bytes) = archive.get_config().map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Failed to get config from OCI artifact.");
+            Error::OciArchive {
+                message: "Failed to get config from OCI artifact".to_string(),
+                source: Some(e.into()),
+            }
+        })?;
+        let cfg_for_push = OciClientConfig {
+            data: cfg_bytes,
+            media_type: cfg_desc.media_type().to_string(),
+            annotations: cfg_desc
+                .annotations()
+                .clone()
+                .map(|h| h.into_iter().collect()),
+        };
+        debug!(config_media_type = %cfg_for_push.media_type, "Image config prepared.");
+
+        // 6. Authenticate
+        info!(target_registry = %push_ref.registry(), "Authenticating with registry.");
+        oci_client
+            .auth(&push_ref, &options.auth, RegistryOperation::Push)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                warn!(registry = %push_ref.registry(), error = %e, "Authentication failed for push.");
+                Error::Generic {
+                    message: format!("Authentication failed for push to {}: {}", push_ref, e),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                }
+            })?;
+        info!("Authentication successful.");
+
+        // 7. Retrieve artifact layers and try to mount them
+        debug!("Retrieving artifact layers for mounting check.");
+        let artifact_layers_result = archive.get_layers().map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Failed to get layers from OCI artifact.");
+            Error::OciArchive {
+                message: "Failed to get layers from OCI artifact".to_string(),
+                source: Some(e.into()),
+            }
+        });
+        let artifact_layers = artifact_layers_result?;
+        debug!(
+            num_artifact_layers = artifact_layers.len(),
+            artifact_layers_digests = ?artifact_layers.iter().map(|(d, _)| d.digest()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            "Details of artifact_layers (layers to be processed for mount/upload)"
+        );
+
+        let mut mounted_digests = HashSet::new();
+        info!("Attempting to mount or verify existing layers to skip upload.");
+
+        for (desc, _layer_data_from_artifact) in &artifact_layers {
+            let digest_str = desc.digest().to_string();
+            let mut should_skip_upload = false;
+
+            debug!(layer_digest = %digest_str, "Attempting to mount layer.");
+            match oci_client
+                .mount_blob(&push_ref, &push_ref, &digest_str)
+                .await
+            {
+                Ok(_) => {
+                    info!(layer_digest = %digest_str, "Layer successfully mounted (OCI 201).");
+                    should_skip_upload = true;
+                }
+                Err(e) => {
+                    debug!(layer_digest = %digest_str, error = %e, "Layer mount failed. Will upload.");
+                }
+            }
+
+            if should_skip_upload {
+                mounted_digests.insert(digest_str.clone());
+            }
+        }
+        info!(
+            num_layers_skipped = mounted_digests.len(),
+            "Finished attempting to mount/verify layers."
+        );
+
+        // 8. Prepare layers for push (filter out mounted ones)
+        let layers_to_push: Vec<OciImageLayer> = artifact_layers
+            .into_iter() // Consumes artifact_layers
+            .filter(|(d, _)| !mounted_digests.contains(d.digest()))
+            .map(|(d, data)| OciImageLayer {
+                data: data.to_vec(), // ocipkg returns bytes::Bytes, oci_client expects Vec<u8>
+                media_type: d.media_type().to_string(),
+                annotations: d.annotations().clone().map(|h| h.into_iter().collect()),
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let total_push_size_bytes: usize = layers_to_push.iter().map(|l| l.data.len()).sum();
+        info!(
+            num_layers_to_push = layers_to_push.len(),
+            num_total_layers = mounted_digests.len() + layers_to_push.len(),
+            total_push_size_mb = total_push_size_bytes / (1024 * 1024),
+            "Preparing to push layers."
+        );
+
+        // Report progress with total bytes and layers
+        let total_layers = mounted_digests.len() + layers_to_push.len();
+        report_progress(PushProgressInfo {
+            operation: "Uploading layers".to_string(),
+            layers_uploaded: mounted_digests.len(),
+            total_layers,
+            bytes_uploaded: 0,
+            total_bytes: total_push_size_bytes as u64,
+        })
+        .await;
+
+        // Skip push when everything was mounted
+        if layers_to_push.is_empty() {
+            info!("All layers already exist in the registry. Pushing config and manifest.");
+
+            // Report progress for config and manifest upload
+            report_progress(PushProgressInfo {
+                operation: "Uploading config and manifest".to_string(),
+                layers_uploaded: total_layers,
+                total_layers,
+                bytes_uploaded: total_push_size_bytes as u64,
+                total_bytes: total_push_size_bytes as u64,
+            })
+            .await;
+
+            // Use the standard push method with empty layers to ensure config blob is uploaded
+            oci_client
+                .push(
+                    &push_ref,
+                    &Vec::new(), // Empty layers since they're all already mounted
+                    cfg_for_push,
+                    &options.auth,
+                    Some(dist_mani),
+                )
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    warn!(error = %e, "OCI client push failed.");
+                    Error::Generic {
+                        message: format!("OCI client push to {} failed: {}", push_ref, e),
+                        source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                    }
+                })?;
+
+            // Final progress report
+            report_progress(PushProgressInfo {
+                operation: "Push completed".to_string(),
+                layers_uploaded: total_layers,
+                total_layers,
+                bytes_uploaded: total_push_size_bytes as u64,
+                total_bytes: total_push_size_bytes as u64,
+            })
+            .await;
+
+            info!(image_ref = %target_image_ref_str, "Image push successful (config and manifest only).");
+            return Ok(target_image_ref_str.to_string());
+        }
+
+        // 9. Push layers individually with progress reporting
+        info!("Pushing image (layers, config, manifest).");
+
+        // Report that we're about to start the actual upload
+        let operation_text = if layers_to_push.is_empty() {
+            "All layers cached".to_string()
+        } else if total_push_size_bytes > 10 * 1024 * 1024 {
+            format!(
+                "Uploading {:.1} MB in {} layers",
+                total_push_size_bytes as f64 / (1024.0 * 1024.0),
+                layers_to_push.len()
+            )
+        } else {
+            format!("Uploading {} layers", layers_to_push.len())
+        };
+
+        report_progress(PushProgressInfo {
+            operation: operation_text,
+            layers_uploaded: mounted_digests.len(),
+            total_layers,
+            bytes_uploaded: 0,
+            total_bytes: total_push_size_bytes as u64,
+        })
+        .await;
+
+        let mut uploaded_bytes = 0u64;
+        let mut uploaded_layers = mounted_digests.len();
+
+        // Upload each layer individually with progress reporting
+        for (i, layer) in layers_to_push.iter().enumerate() {
+            let digest = format!("sha256:{:x}", sha2::Sha256::digest(&layer.data));
+            info!(
+                "Uploading layer {}/{}: {}",
+                i + 1,
+                layers_to_push.len(),
+                digest
+            );
+
+            oci_client
+                .push_blob(&push_ref, &layer.data, &digest)
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    warn!(error = %e, "Failed to push layer {}", digest);
+                    Error::Generic {
+                        message: format!("Failed to push layer {}: {}", digest, e),
+                        source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                    }
+                })?;
+
+            uploaded_bytes += layer.data.len() as u64;
+            uploaded_layers += 1;
+
+            report_progress(PushProgressInfo {
+                operation: String::new(),
+                layers_uploaded: uploaded_layers,
+                total_layers,
+                bytes_uploaded: uploaded_bytes,
+                total_bytes: total_push_size_bytes as u64,
+            })
+            .await;
+        }
+
+        // Upload config blob
+        info!("Uploading config blob");
+        report_progress(PushProgressInfo {
+            operation: "Uploading config".to_string(),
+            layers_uploaded: uploaded_layers,
+            total_layers,
+            bytes_uploaded: uploaded_bytes,
+            total_bytes: total_push_size_bytes as u64,
+        })
+        .await;
+
+        oci_client
+            .push_blob(&push_ref, &cfg_for_push.data, &dist_mani.config.digest)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                warn!(error = %e, "Failed to push config blob");
+                Error::Generic {
+                    message: format!("Failed to push config blob: {}", e),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                }
+            })?;
+
+        // Upload manifest
+        info!("Uploading manifest");
+        report_progress(PushProgressInfo {
+            operation: "Uploading manifest".to_string(),
+            layers_uploaded: uploaded_layers,
+            total_layers,
+            bytes_uploaded: uploaded_bytes,
+            total_bytes: total_push_size_bytes as u64,
+        })
+        .await;
+
+        oci_client
+            .push_manifest(&push_ref, &dist_mani.into())
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                warn!(error = %e, "Failed to push manifest");
+                Error::Generic {
+                    message: format!("Failed to push manifest: {}", e),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                }
+            })?;
+
+        // Final progress report
+        report_progress(PushProgressInfo {
+            operation: "Push completed".to_string(),
+            layers_uploaded: total_layers,
+            total_layers,
+            bytes_uploaded: total_push_size_bytes as u64,
+            total_bytes: total_push_size_bytes as u64,
+        })
+        .await;
+
+        // 10. Return success
+        info!(image_ref = %target_image_ref_str, "Image push successful.");
+        Ok(target_image_ref_str.to_string())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Builder for creating `Image` instances.
+#[derive(Default)]
+pub struct ImageBuilder {
+    base_image_ref: Option<String>,
+    platform_os: Option<String>,
+    platform_arch: Option<Arch>,
+    layers: Vec<Layer>,
+    entrypoint: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    cmd: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    working_dir: Option<String>,
+    output_path: Option<PathBuf>,
+    blob_cache: Option<blobcache::BlobCache>,
+    output_image_name_and_tag: Option<String>,
+    pull_policy: Option<PullPolicy>,
+    auth: Option<RegistryAuth>,
+}
+
+impl ImageBuilder {
+    /// Sets the base image reference (e.g., "marketplace.gcr.io/google/ubuntu2404:latest", "ghcr.io/user/image:tag").
+    pub fn from(mut self, base_image_ref: &str) -> Self {
+        self.base_image_ref = Some(base_image_ref.to_string());
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the target platform for the image.
+    pub fn platform(mut self, os: &str, arch: &Arch) -> Self {
+        self.platform_os = Some(os.to_string());
+        self.platform_arch = Some(arch.clone());
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Adds a `Layer` to be included in the image. Layers are applied in the order they are added.
+    pub fn layer(mut self, layer: Layer) -> Self {
+        self.layers.push(layer);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the entrypoint for the image. Overrides the entrypoint from the base image.
+    pub fn entrypoint(mut self, entrypoint: Vec<String>) -> Self {
+        self.entrypoint = Some(entrypoint);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the command (Cmd) for the image. Overrides the command from the base image.
+    pub fn cmd(mut self, cmd: Vec<String>) -> Self {
+        self.cmd = Some(cmd);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the working directory for the image. Overrides the working directory from the base image.
+    pub fn working_dir(mut self, working_dir: &str) -> Self {
+        self.working_dir = Some(working_dir.to_string());
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Specifies the final path where the OCI archive tarball should be saved.
+    /// If not set, the archive will be created in a temporary directory.
+    pub fn output_to(mut self, path: PathBuf) -> Self {
+        self.output_path = Some(path);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets a specific BlobCache instance to be used by the ImageBuilder.
+    /// If not called, a default BlobCache will be created when `build()` is invoked.
+    pub fn blob_cache(mut self, cache: blobcache::BlobCache) -> Self {
+        self.blob_cache = Some(cache);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the name and tag to be used for the image configuration within the OCI archive.
+    /// If not set, it defaults to "<base_image_repository>:latest".
+    pub fn output_name_and_tag(mut self, name_and_tag: &str) -> Self {
+        self.output_image_name_and_tag = Some(name_and_tag.to_string());
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the pull policy for the base image manifest.
+    /// Defaults to `PullPolicy::Missing`.
+    pub fn pull_policy(mut self, policy: PullPolicy) -> Self {
+        self.pull_policy = Some(policy);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the authentication for pulling the base image.
+    /// If not set, authentication is determined from environment variables (DOCKER_USERNAME/DOCKER_PASSWORD).
+    pub fn auth(mut self, auth: RegistryAuth) -> Self {
+        self.auth = Some(auth);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Builds the image.
+    /// This involves potentially using a cache for the base image, pulling it if necessary,
+    /// applying new layers and configuration,
+    /// and creating an OCI tarball layout in a temporary directory.
+    #[instrument(skip_all, fields(
+        base_image_ref = ?self.base_image_ref,
+        platform_os = ?self.platform_os,
+        platform_arch = ?self.platform_arch,
+        num_layers_to_add = self.layers.len(),
+        output_path = ?self.output_path
+    ))]
+    pub async fn build(mut self) -> Result<(Image, BuildDiagnostics)> {
+        info!("Starting image build.");
+
+        let target_os_for_build = self
+            .platform_os
+            .clone()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| "linux".to_string());
+        let target_arch_for_build = self.platform_arch.clone().unwrap_or(Arch::Amd64);
+
+        // Conditionally pull base image if specified
+        let base_image_data: Option<OciImageData>;
+        let manifest_source: ManifestSource;
+        let resolved_manifest_digest_str: String;
+        let default_image_name: String;
+
+        if let Some(base_image_ref_str) = &self.base_image_ref {
+            // Pull base image
+            info!("Building from base image: {}", base_image_ref_str);
+
+            let base_ref =
+                Reference::try_from(base_image_ref_str.as_str()).map_err(|e| Error::ImagePull {
+                    image_ref: base_image_ref_str.to_string(),
+                    message: format!("Invalid base image reference format: {}", e),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                })?;
+
+            // Determine authentication for pulling base image
+            // Use provided auth if available, otherwise determine from environment variables
+            let pull_auth = self
+                .auth
+                .take()
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| determine_registry_auth(&base_ref));
+            let pull_policy = self.pull_policy.take().unwrap_or_default(); // Get policy or default
+
+            // Initialize cache instance ONCE.
+            // If self.blob_cache is None, ImageBuilder creates its own.
+            // If it's Some, it means ImageBuilder was configured with an external cache.
+            let cache = match self.blob_cache.take() {
+                // Take ownership from self
+                Some(c) => c,
+                None => {
+                    debug!("No BlobCache provided to ImageBuilder, creating a default one.");
+                    blobcache::BlobCache::new()?
+                }
+            };
+
+            let mut client_cfg = ClientConfig::default();
+
+            if let (Some(os_filter_val), Some(arch_filter_val)) =
+                (&self.platform_os, &self.platform_arch)
+            {
+                let os_filter_cloned = os_filter_val.clone();
+                let arch_filter_cloned = arch_filter_val.to_string();
+                client_cfg.platform_resolver = Some(Box::new(
+                    move |index_entries: &[ImageIndexEntry]| {
+                        info!(target_os = %os_filter_cloned, target_arch = %arch_filter_cloned, num_index_entries = index_entries.len(), "Platform resolver: Attempting to find match.");
+                        for entry in index_entries {
+                            if let Some(p) = entry.platform.as_ref() {
+                                if p.os == os_filter_cloned && p.architecture == arch_filter_cloned
+                                {
+                                    info!(resolver_selected_digest = %entry.digest, "Platform resolver: Found a match.");
+                                    return Some(entry.digest.clone());
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                        warn!(target_os = %os_filter_cloned, target_arch = %arch_filter_cloned, "Platform resolver: No match found.");
+                        None
+                    },
+                ));
+            } else {
+                info!("Platform resolver not configured as os/arch were not explicitly provided to ImageBuilder. Default oci-client resolver will be used if necessary.");
+                // If no platform is specified by the user, oci-client's default resolver (current_platform_resolver) will be used.
+                // We don't need to explicitly set it to None here, as ClientConfig::default() already sets a default resolver.
+            }
+
+            let oci_client = Client::new(client_cfg);
+
+            info!(base_image_ref = %base_image_ref_str, pull_policy = ?pull_policy, "Attempting to pull/load resolved base image manifest.");
+
+            let pull_err_mapper = |e: OciDistributionError| {
+                warn!(base_image_ref = %base_image_ref_str, error = %e, "Failed to pull and resolve base image manifest.");
+                Error::ImagePull {
+                    image_ref: base_image_ref_str.to_string(),
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to pull/resolve base image manifest ({}): {}",
+                        base_image_ref_str, e
+                    ),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                }
+            };
+
+            let manifest_cache_key = format!("manifest-v1:{}", base_ref.whole());
+            let manifest_source_temp: ManifestSource;
+
+            let (base_image_manifest_resolved, resolved_manifest_digest_str_temp) = if pull_policy
+                == PullPolicy::Missing
+            {
+                debug!(key = %manifest_cache_key, "PullPolicy::Missing. Attempting to load manifest from cache.");
+                match cache.get_blob(&manifest_cache_key).await {
+                    Ok(Some(cached_data)) => {
+                        match serde_json::from_slice::<(OciImageManifest, String)>(&cached_data) {
+                            Ok((manifest, digest)) => {
+                                info!(key = %manifest_cache_key, resolved_digest = %digest, "Manifest cache hit and deserialized successfully.");
+                                manifest_source_temp = ManifestSource::FromCache;
+                                (manifest, digest)
+                            }
+                            Err(e) => {
+                                warn!(key = %manifest_cache_key, error = %e, "Failed to deserialize cached manifest. Will pull from registry.");
+                                // Fallback: Pull and cache
+                                manifest_source_temp = ManifestSource::FromRegistry;
+                                let (pulled_manifest, pulled_digest) = oci_client
+                                    .pull_image_manifest(&base_ref, &pull_auth)
+                                    .await
+                                    .map_err(pull_err_mapper)?;
+                                match serde_json::to_vec(&(
+                                    pulled_manifest.clone(),
+                                    pulled_digest.clone(),
+                                )) {
+                                    Ok(data_to_cache) => {
+                                        if let Err(cache_err) = cache
+                                            .put_blob(&manifest_cache_key, &data_to_cache)
+                                            .await
+                                        {
+                                            warn!(key = %manifest_cache_key, error = %cache_err, "Failed to cache manifest after pull.");
+                                        }
+                                    }
+                                    Err(ser_err) => {
+                                        warn!(key = %manifest_cache_key, error = %ser_err, "Failed to serialize manifest for caching after pull.");
+                                    }
+                                }
+                                (pulled_manifest, pulled_digest)
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Ok(None) => {
+                        // Cache miss
+                        info!(key = %manifest_cache_key, "Manifest cache miss (no entry found). Will pull from registry.");
+                        manifest_source_temp = ManifestSource::FromRegistry;
+                        let (pulled_manifest, pulled_digest) = oci_client
+                            .pull_image_manifest(&base_ref, &pull_auth)
+                            .await
+                            .map_err(pull_err_mapper)?;
+                        match serde_json::to_vec(&(pulled_manifest.clone(), pulled_digest.clone()))
+                        {
+                            Ok(data_to_cache) => {
+                                if let Err(cache_err) =
+                                    cache.put_blob(&manifest_cache_key, &data_to_cache).await
+                                {
+                                    warn!(key = %manifest_cache_key, error = %cache_err, "Failed to cache manifest after pull.");
+                                }
+                            }
+                            Err(ser_err) => {
+                                warn!(key = %manifest_cache_key, error = %ser_err, "Failed to serialize manifest for caching after pull.");
+                            }
+                        }
+                        (pulled_manifest, pulled_digest)
+                    }
+                    Err(e) => {
+                        // Cache error
+                        warn!(key = %manifest_cache_key, error = %e, "Error reading manifest from cache. Will pull from registry.");
+                        manifest_source_temp = ManifestSource::FromRegistry;
+                        let (pulled_manifest, pulled_digest) = oci_client
+                            .pull_image_manifest(&base_ref, &pull_auth)
+                            .await
+                            .map_err(pull_err_mapper)?;
+                        match serde_json::to_vec(&(pulled_manifest.clone(), pulled_digest.clone()))
+                        {
+                            Ok(data_to_cache) => {
+                                if let Err(cache_err) =
+                                    cache.put_blob(&manifest_cache_key, &data_to_cache).await
+                                {
+                                    warn!(key = %manifest_cache_key, error = %cache_err, "Failed to cache manifest after pull.");
+                                }
+                            }
+                            Err(ser_err) => {
+                                warn!(key = %manifest_cache_key, error = %ser_err, "Failed to serialize manifest for caching after pull.");
+                            }
+                        }
+                        (pulled_manifest, pulled_digest)
+                    }
+                }
+            } else {
+                // PullPolicy::Always
+                info!(key = %manifest_cache_key, "PullPolicy::Always. Pulling manifest from registry.");
+                manifest_source_temp = ManifestSource::FromRegistry;
+                let (pulled_manifest, pulled_digest) = oci_client
+                    .pull_image_manifest(&base_ref, &pull_auth)
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(pull_err_mapper)?;
+
+                match serde_json::to_vec(&(pulled_manifest.clone(), pulled_digest.clone())) {
+                    Ok(data_to_cache) => {
+                        if let Err(cache_err) =
+                            cache.put_blob(&manifest_cache_key, &data_to_cache).await
+                        {
+                            warn!(key = %manifest_cache_key, error = %cache_err, "Failed to cache manifest after pull.");
+                        } else {
+                            debug!(key = %manifest_cache_key, "Successfully cached manifest after pull.");
+                        }
+                    }
+                    Err(ser_err) => {
+                        warn!(key = %manifest_cache_key, error = %ser_err, "Failed to serialize manifest for caching after pull.");
+                    }
+                }
+                (pulled_manifest, pulled_digest)
+            };
+
+            info!(manifest_digest = %resolved_manifest_digest_str_temp, "Successfully obtained base ImageManifest (source: {:?}).", manifest_source_temp);
+
+            // Fetch config blob using the resolved manifest
+            let config_descriptor = &base_image_manifest_resolved.config;
+            info!(config_digest = %config_descriptor.digest, "Fetching base image config blob.");
+            let config_data = match cache.get_blob(&config_descriptor.digest).await? {
+                Some(data) => {
+                    info!(config_digest = %config_descriptor.digest, "Base image config blob found in cache.");
+                    data
+                }
+                None => {
+                    info!(config_digest = %config_descriptor.digest, "Base image config blob not in cache, pulling.");
+                    let mut pulled_data = Vec::new();
+                    oci_client
+                        .pull_blob(&base_ref, config_descriptor, &mut pulled_data)
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|e| Error::ImagePull {
+                            image_ref: base_image_ref_str.to_string(),
+                            message: format!(
+                                "Failed to pull config blob {}",
+                                config_descriptor.digest
+                            ),
+                            source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                        })?;
+                    cache
+                        .put_blob(&config_descriptor.digest, &pulled_data)
+                        .await?;
+                    pulled_data
+                }
+            };
+
+            let oci_client_config_for_imagedata = OciClientConfig {
+                data: config_data,
+                media_type: config_descriptor.media_type.clone(),
+                annotations: config_descriptor.annotations.clone(),
+            };
+
+            info!(
+                num_base_layers = base_image_manifest_resolved.layers.len(),
+                "Fetching base image layer blobs."
+            );
+            let mut oci_client_layers = Vec::new();
+            for (idx, layer_descriptor) in base_image_manifest_resolved.layers.iter().enumerate() {
+                let layer_data = match cache.get_blob(&layer_descriptor.digest).await? {
+                    Some(data) => {
+                        info!(layer_idx = idx, layer_digest = %layer_descriptor.digest, "Base layer blob found in cache.");
+                        data
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        info!(layer_idx = idx, layer_digest = %layer_descriptor.digest, "Base layer blob not in cache, pulling.");
+                        let mut pulled_data = Vec::new();
+                        oci_client
+                            .pull_blob(&base_ref, layer_descriptor, &mut pulled_data)
+                            .await
+                            .map_err(|e| Error::ImagePull {
+                                image_ref: base_image_ref_str.to_string(),
+                                message: format!(
+                                    "Failed to pull layer blob {}",
+                                    layer_descriptor.digest
+                                ),
+                                source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                            })?;
+                        cache
+                            .put_blob(&layer_descriptor.digest, &pulled_data)
+                            .await?;
+                        pulled_data
+                    }
+                };
+                oci_client_layers.push(OciImageLayer {
+                    data: layer_data,
+                    media_type: layer_descriptor.media_type.clone(),
+                    annotations: layer_descriptor.annotations.clone(),
+                });
+            }
+
+            // Assign to outer scope variables
+            manifest_source = manifest_source_temp;
+            resolved_manifest_digest_str = resolved_manifest_digest_str_temp;
+
+            base_image_data = Some(OciImageData {
+                layers: oci_client_layers,
+                digest: Some(resolved_manifest_digest_str.clone()),
+                config: oci_client_config_for_imagedata,
+                manifest: Some(base_image_manifest_resolved.clone()),
+            });
+            default_image_name = format!("{}:latest", base_ref.repository());
+        } else {
+            // Building from scratch (no base image)
+            info!("Building from scratch (no base image)");
+            base_image_data = None;
+            manifest_source = ManifestSource::NotApplicable;
+            resolved_manifest_digest_str = String::new();
+            default_image_name = "scratch:latest".to_string();
+        }
+
+        let build_artifacts_dir = tempfile::tempdir().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "Failed to create temporary directory for image build artifacts".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+
+        // Build image configuration (either from base or from scratch)
+        let current_config: ImageConfiguration = if let Some(ref base_data) = base_image_data {
+            // Start from base image config
+            let mut config: ImageConfiguration = serde_json::from_slice(&base_data.config.data)
+                .map_err(|e| Error::ImageConfig {
+                    message: "Failed to parse base image configuration".to_string(),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                })?;
+
+            // Add new layers to diff_ids
+            let mut all_diff_ids: Vec<String> = config.rootfs().diff_ids().clone();
+            for new_layer in &self.layers {
+                all_diff_ids.push(new_layer.diff_id().to_string());
+            }
+            *config.rootfs_mut().diff_ids_mut() = all_diff_ids;
+
+            // Update process config
+            let mut proc_config = config.config().clone().unwrap_or_default();
+            if let Some(entrypoint) = self.entrypoint {
+                proc_config.set_entrypoint(Some(entrypoint));
+            }
+            if let Some(cmd) = self.cmd {
+                proc_config.set_cmd(Some(cmd));
+            } else {
+                proc_config.set_cmd(Some(vec![]));
+            }
+            if let Some(working_dir) = self.working_dir {
+                proc_config.set_working_dir(Some(working_dir));
+            }
+            config.set_os(target_os_for_build.as_str().into());
+            config.set_architecture(target_arch_for_build.to_string().as_str().into());
+            config.set_config(Some(proc_config));
+            config
+        } else {
+            // Build from scratch - create minimal config
+            use oci_spec::image::{ConfigBuilder, ImageConfigurationBuilder, RootFsBuilder};
+
+            let diff_ids: Vec<String> = self
+                .layers
+                .iter()
+                .map(|layer| layer.diff_id().to_string())
+                .collect();
+
+            let rootfs = RootFsBuilder::default()
+                .typ("layers")
+                .diff_ids(diff_ids)
+                .build()
+                .map_err(|e| Error::ImageConfig {
+                    message: format!("Failed to build rootfs: {}", e),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                })?;
+
+            let mut config_builder = ConfigBuilder::default();
+            if let Some(entrypoint) = self.entrypoint {
+                config_builder = config_builder.entrypoint(entrypoint);
+            }
+            if let Some(cmd) = self.cmd {
+                config_builder = config_builder.cmd(cmd);
+            } else {
+                config_builder = config_builder.cmd(Vec::<String>::new());
+            }
+            if let Some(working_dir) = self.working_dir {
+                config_builder = config_builder.working_dir(working_dir);
+            }
+
+            let proc_config = config_builder.build().map_err(|e| Error::ImageConfig {
+                message: format!("Failed to build config: {}", e),
+                source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+            })?;
+
+            ImageConfigurationBuilder::default()
+                .os(target_os_for_build.as_str())
+                .architecture(target_arch_for_build.to_string().as_str())
+                .rootfs(rootfs)
+                .config(proc_config)
+                .build()
+                .map_err(|e| Error::ImageConfig {
+                    message: format!("Failed to build image configuration: {}", e),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                })?
+        };
+
+        let config_json_bytes =
+            serde_json::to_vec(&current_config).map_err(|e| Error::ImageConfig {
+                message: "Failed to serialize new image configuration".to_string(),
+                source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+            })?;
+        let config_digest_sha256 = {
+            let mut hasher = Sha256::new();
+            hasher.update(&config_json_bytes);
+            format!("sha256:{:x}", hasher.finalize())
+        };
+
+        let mut oci_tar_builder = oci_tar_builder::Builder::default();
+
+        // Add base layers if we have them
+        if let Some(ref base_data) = base_image_data {
+            for (idx, base_layer_oci) in base_data.layers.iter().enumerate() {
+                let temp_layer_path = build_artifacts_dir
+                    .path()
+                    .join(format!("base_layer_{}.blob", idx));
+                std_fs::write(&temp_layer_path, &base_layer_oci.data).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    message: format!("Failed to write base layer {} to temp file", idx),
+                    source: e,
+                })?;
+                oci_tar_builder
+                    .add_layer_with_media_type(&temp_layer_path, base_layer_oci.media_type.clone());
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Add new layers
+        for new_layer in &self.layers {
+            oci_tar_builder.add_layer_with_media_type(
+                &new_layer.path().to_path_buf(),
+                IMAGE_LAYER_ZSTD_MEDIA_TYPE.to_string(),
+            );
+        }
+
+        let image_name_and_tag_for_config = self
+            .output_image_name_and_tag
+            .clone()
+            .unwrap_or(default_image_name);
+        oci_tar_builder.add_config(current_config.clone(), image_name_and_tag_for_config);
+
+        let (oci_archive_final_path, temp_dir_manager_for_image_struct) = if let Some(output_p) =
+            self.output_path
+        {
+            if let Some(parent_dir) = output_p.parent() {
+                if !parent_dir.exists() {
+                    std_fs::create_dir_all(parent_dir).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Failed to create parent directory for output OCI archive: {}",
+                            parent_dir.display()
+                        ),
+                        source: e,
+                    })?;
+                }
+            }
+            (output_p, None)
+        } else {
+            let final_oci_temp_dir = tempfile::tempdir().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                message: "Failed to create temporary directory for final OCI archive".to_string(),
+                source: e,
+            })?;
+            (
+                final_oci_temp_dir.path().join("image.oci.tar"),
+                Some(final_oci_temp_dir),
+            )
+        };
+
+        let oci_archive_file =
+            std_fs::File::create(&oci_archive_final_path).map_err(|e| Error::OciArchive {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to create OCI archive file at {}",
+                    oci_archive_final_path.display()
+                ),
+                source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+            })?;
+
+        oci_tar_builder
+            .build(oci_archive_file)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::OciArchive {
+                message: format!("OCI tar builder failed: {}", e),
+                source: Some(e.into()),
+            })?;
+
+        let diagnostics = BuildDiagnostics {
+            manifest_source,
+            resolved_manifest_digest: resolved_manifest_digest_str.clone(),
+        };
+
+        Ok((
+            Image {
+                oci_archive_path: oci_archive_final_path,
+                config_digest: config_digest_sha256,
+                _temp_dir_manager: temp_dir_manager_for_image_struct,
+            },
+            diagnostics,
+        ))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Determines the RegistryAuth by trying environment variables and falling back to Anonymous.
+fn determine_registry_auth(reference: &Reference) -> RegistryAuth {
+    let host_for_logging = reference.resolve_registry(); // Still useful for logging
+
+    let auth = match (env::var("DOCKER_USERNAME"), env::var("DOCKER_PASSWORD")) {
+        (Ok(username), Ok(password)) if !username.is_empty() && !password.is_empty() => {
+            info!(
+                "Using Docker credentials from DOCKER_USERNAME/PASSWORD env vars for {}",
+                host_for_logging
+            );
+            RegistryAuth::Basic(username, password)
+        }
+        _ => {
+            info!(
+                "DOCKER_USERNAME and/or DOCKER_PASSWORD not set or empty. Falling back to anonymous auth for {}.",
+                host_for_logging
+            );
+            RegistryAuth::Anonymous
+        }
+    };
+
+    auth
+}
+
+/// Determines whether to use monolithic push based on the policy and registry hostname.
+fn determine_use_monolithic_push(policy: &MonolithicPushPolicy, reference: &Reference) -> bool {
+    match policy {
+        MonolithicPushPolicy::Always => {
+            debug!("MonolithicPushPolicy::Always - using monolithic push");
+            true
+        }
+        MonolithicPushPolicy::Never => {
+            debug!("MonolithicPushPolicy::Never - using chunked upload");
+            false
+        }
+        MonolithicPushPolicy::Auto => {
+            let registry_host = reference.resolve_registry();
+            let use_monolithic = is_registry_requiring_monolithic_push(registry_host);
+
+            if use_monolithic {
+                info!(
+                    "Registry {} requires monolithic push - enabling monolithic push mode",
+                    registry_host
+                );
+            } else {
+                debug!(
+                    "Registry {} supports chunked upload - using chunked upload mode",
+                    registry_host
+                );
+            }
+
+            use_monolithic
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Checks if a registry requires monolithic push based on its hostname.
+fn is_registry_requiring_monolithic_push(registry_host: &str) -> bool {
+    // Google Artifact Registry and Container Registry require monolithic push
+    registry_host.ends_with("-docker.pkg.dev") // Google Artifact Registry
+        || registry_host == "gcr.io"
+        || registry_host.ends_with(".gcr.io") // Google Container Registry
+        || registry_host == "us.gcr.io"
+        || registry_host == "eu.gcr.io"
+        || registry_host == "asia.gcr.io"
+}
diff --git a/src/layer.rs b/src/layer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6cf4b3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/layer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1514 @@
+use crate::blobcache;
+use crate::error::{Error, Result};
+use sha2::{Digest, Sha256};
+use std::{
+    collections::HashSet,
+    fs::File,
+    io::{self},
+    path::{Path, PathBuf},
+};
+use tempfile::NamedTempFile;
+use tokio::task;
+use tracing::{debug, info, instrument, warn};
+
+/// OCI media type for zstd-compressed tar layers
+const IMAGE_LAYER_ZSTD_MEDIA_TYPE: &str = "application/vnd.oci.image.layer.v1.tar+zstd";
+
+/// Represents a single layer in an OCI image.
+///
+/// A layer consists of a zstd-compressed tarball of files and a corresponding diff_id.
+/// The temporary file holding the compressed tarball is automatically deleted when
+/// the `Layer` instance is dropped.
+pub struct Layer {
+    diff_id: String,     // Digest of the uncompressed tar (for image config diffIds)
+    blob_digest: String, // Digest of the compressed tar (for OCI blob storage/cache key)
+    media_type: String,  // Media type of the blob, typically IMAGE_LAYER_ZSTD_MEDIA_TYPE
+    compressed_layer_file: NamedTempFile, // The temporary file for this layer instance
+}
+
+impl Layer {
+    /// Creates a new `LayerBuilder` to construct a layer.
+    pub fn builder() -> Result<LayerBuilder> {
+        LayerBuilder::new()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the diff_id of the layer (e.g., "sha256:deadbeef..."), hash of uncompressed tar.
+    pub fn diff_id(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.diff_id
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the blob_digest of the layer (e.g., "sha256:abc123..."), hash of compressed tar.
+    pub fn blob_digest(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.blob_digest
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the media type of the layer's blob.
+    pub fn media_type(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.media_type
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the path to the temporary file containing the compressed tarball for this layer.
+    pub fn path(&self) -> &Path {
+        self.compressed_layer_file.path()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Metadata about a file added to the layer, used for input-based cache key calculation.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct FileMetadata {
+    /// Path in the archive
+    archive_path: PathBuf,
+    /// Size of the file
+    size: u64,
+    /// Modification time (seconds since epoch)
+    mtime: u64,
+    /// File mode (permissions)
+    mode: u32,
+    /// Whether this is a directory
+    is_dir: bool,
+}
+
+/// Builder for creating `Layer` instances.
+///
+/// Allows for incrementally adding content (directories, files, in-memory data)
+/// to an uncompressed tar archive stored in a temporary file. The `build` method
+/// finalizes this tar archive, computes its diff_id, zstd-compresses it into another
+/// temporary file, and returns a `Layer`.
+pub struct LayerBuilder {
+    /// Kept alive so the temp file isn't deleted while the tar builder writes to it.
+    _uncompressed_tar_tmpfile: NamedTempFile,
+    tar_writer: tar::Builder<File>,
+    uncompressed_tar_path: PathBuf,
+    blob_cache: Option<blobcache::BlobCache>,
+    created_archive_dirs: HashSet<PathBuf>,
+    /// Metadata about files added to this layer, used for input-based cache key.
+    file_metadata: Vec<FileMetadata>,
+}
+
+impl LayerBuilder {
+    #[instrument(level = "info", skip_all, fields(uncompressed_tar_path))]
+    fn new() -> Result<Self> {
+        info!("Creating new LayerBuilder.");
+        let uncompressed_tar_tmpfile = NamedTempFile::new().map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Failed to create temporary file for uncompressed tar.");
+            Error::Io {
+                source: e,
+                message: "Failed to create temporary file for uncompressed tar".to_string(),
+            }
+        })?;
+        let file_for_builder = uncompressed_tar_tmpfile.reopen().map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Failed to reopen temporary file for tar builder.");
+            Error::Io {
+                source: e,
+                message: "Failed to reopen temporary file for tar builder".to_string(),
+            }
+        })?;
+        let mut tar_writer = tar::Builder::new(file_for_builder);
+        tar_writer.follow_symlinks(false);
+        let uncompressed_tar_path = uncompressed_tar_tmpfile.path().to_path_buf();
+        tracing::Span::current().record(
+            "uncompressed_tar_path",
+            uncompressed_tar_path.display().to_string(),
+        );
+        debug!(path = %uncompressed_tar_path.display(), "LayerBuilder initialized with temporary tar file.");
+        Ok(Self {
+            _uncompressed_tar_tmpfile: uncompressed_tar_tmpfile,
+            tar_writer,
+            uncompressed_tar_path,
+            blob_cache: None,
+            created_archive_dirs: HashSet::new(),
+            file_metadata: Vec::new(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Sets a specific BlobCache instance to be used by the LayerBuilder.
+    /// If not called, a default BlobCache will be created when `build()` is invoked.
+    pub fn blob_cache(mut self, cache: blobcache::BlobCache) -> Self {
+        self.blob_cache = Some(cache);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Calculate a cache key from input file metadata.
+    /// This is much faster than hashing the tar content because it only hashes
+    /// the metadata (paths, sizes, mtimes, modes) rather than file contents.
+    /// The key is deterministic: same input files → same tar → same key.
+    fn calculate_input_key(&self) -> String {
+        use sha2::{Digest, Sha256};
+
+        let mut hasher = Sha256::new();
+
+        // Sort metadata by archive path for deterministic ordering
+        let mut sorted_metadata = self.file_metadata.clone();
+        sorted_metadata.sort_by(|a, b| a.archive_path.cmp(&b.archive_path));
+
+        for meta in &sorted_metadata {
+            // Hash: path | size | mtime | mode | is_dir
+            hasher.update(meta.archive_path.to_string_lossy().as_bytes());
+            hasher.update(meta.size.to_le_bytes());
+            hasher.update(meta.mtime.to_le_bytes());
+            hasher.update(meta.mode.to_le_bytes());
+            hasher.update([meta.is_dir as u8]);
+        }
+
+        format!("layer-input-{:x}", hasher.finalize())
+    }
+
+    /// Calculate a content-based cache key from a finalized tar file path.
+    /// This is a fallback when input-based caching doesn't produce a hit.
+    fn calculate_content_key(tar_path: &Path) -> Result<String> {
+        use sha2::{Digest, Sha256};
+
+        let mut hasher = Sha256::new();
+
+        // Hash all entries in the tar in order
+        let mut file = File::open(tar_path).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            source: e,
+            message: format!(
+                "Failed to open tar file for content key calculation: {}",
+                tar_path.display()
+            ),
+        })?;
+
+        std::io::copy(&mut file, &mut hasher).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            source: e,
+            message: "Failed to read tar file for content key calculation".to_string(),
+        })?;
+
+        Ok(format!("layer-content-{:x}", hasher.finalize()))
+    }
+
+    /// Adds an entire directory (recursively) from the local filesystem to the layer.
+    ///
+    /// - `disk_path`: Path to the source directory on the local filesystem.
+    /// - `archive_path`: Path under which the directory contents will be placed within the layer's tar archive.
+    #[instrument(level = "info", skip(self), fields(disk_path = %disk_path.as_ref().display(), archive_path = %archive_path.as_ref().display()))]
+    pub fn directory(
+        mut self,
+        disk_path: impl AsRef<Path>,
+        archive_path: impl AsRef<Path>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let dp_ref = disk_path.as_ref();
+        let ap_ref = archive_path.as_ref();
+        info!(
+            "Adding directory to layer. Original archive path: {}",
+            ap_ref.display()
+        );
+
+        let normalized_ap = normalize_archive_path(ap_ref);
+        debug!(
+            "Normalized archive path for directory: {}",
+            normalized_ap.display()
+        );
+
+        self.tar_writer
+            .append_dir_all(&normalized_ap, dp_ref)
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                warn!(error = %e, "Failed to append directory to tar.");
+                Error::Io {
+                    source: e,
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to append directory {} (as {}) to tar",
+                        dp_ref.display(),
+                        normalized_ap.display()
+                    ),
+                }
+            })?;
+
+        self.file_metadata.push(FileMetadata {
+            archive_path: normalized_ap,
+            size: 0,
+            mtime: 0,
+            mode: 0o755,
+            is_dir: true,
+        });
+
+        debug!("Successfully added directory to layer.");
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Adds a single file from the local filesystem to the layer.
+    ///
+    /// - `disk_path`: Path to the source file on the local filesystem.
+    /// - `archive_path`: Path where the file will be placed within the layer's tar archive.
+    ///   If absolute (e.g. "/foo/bar.txt"), it will be treated as relative to the layer root (e.g. "foo/bar.txt").
+    ///   An archive_path of "/" is invalid for a file.
+    /// - `mode`: Optional. The file mode (permissions) to set. If `None`, uses the source file's mode.
+    #[instrument(level = "info", skip(self), fields(disk_path = %disk_path.as_ref().display(), archive_path = %archive_path.as_ref().display(), mode))]
+    pub fn file(
+        mut self,
+        disk_path: impl AsRef<Path>,
+        archive_path: impl AsRef<Path>,
+        mode: Option<u32>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let dp_ref = disk_path.as_ref();
+        let ap_ref = archive_path.as_ref();
+        info!(
+            "Adding file to layer. Original archive path: {}",
+            ap_ref.display()
+        );
+
+        let normalized_ap = normalize_archive_path(ap_ref);
+        debug!(
+            "Normalized archive path for file: {}",
+            normalized_ap.display()
+        );
+
+        if normalized_ap.as_os_str().is_empty() {
+            warn!("Attempted to add file with an empty archive path (derived from root '/')");
+            return Err(Error::InvalidPath {
+                message: format!(
+                    "Archive path for file '{}' cannot be the root directory ('/') or empty.",
+                    dp_ref.display()
+                ),
+            });
+        }
+
+        self.ensure_parent_dirs_exist(&normalized_ap)?;
+
+        let mut f = File::open(dp_ref).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            source: e,
+            message: format!("Failed to open file {} for tar", dp_ref.display()),
+        })?;
+
+        // Get file metadata for input-based cache key
+        let file_metadata = f.metadata().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            source: e,
+            message: format!("Failed to get metadata for file {}", dp_ref.display()),
+        })?;
+
+        let file_mode = mode.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            #[cfg(unix)]
+            {
+                use std::os::unix::fs::PermissionsExt;
+                file_metadata.permissions().mode()
+            }
+            #[cfg(not(unix))]
+            {
+                0o644
+            }
+        });
+
+        // Track file metadata for input-based cache key calculation
+        self.file_metadata.push(FileMetadata {
+            archive_path: normalized_ap.clone(),
+            size: file_metadata.len(),
+            mtime: file_metadata
+                .modified()
+                .map(|t| {
+                    t.duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH)
+                        .unwrap_or_default()
+                        .as_secs()
+                })
+                .unwrap_or(0),
+            mode: file_mode,
+            is_dir: false,
+        });
+
+        if let Some(new_mode) = mode {
+            let mut header = tar::Header::new_gnu();
+            header.set_metadata(&file_metadata); // Copies size, perms, mtime, etc.
+            header.set_mode(new_mode); // Override mode
+            header.set_mtime(0); // Consistent mtime for reproducibility if desired
+            header.set_uid(0);
+            header.set_gid(0);
+
+            self.tar_writer
+                .append_data(&mut header, &normalized_ap, &mut f)
+                .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    source: e,
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to append file {} (as {}) with custom mode to tar",
+                        dp_ref.display(),
+                        normalized_ap.display()
+                    ),
+                })?;
+        } else {
+            self.tar_writer
+                .append_file(&normalized_ap, &mut f)
+                .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    source: e,
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to append file {} (as {}) to tar",
+                        dp_ref.display(),
+                        normalized_ap.display()
+                    ),
+                })?;
+        }
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Adds data from an in-memory byte slice to the layer as a file.
+    ///
+    /// - `archive_path`: Path where the data will be stored within the layer's tar archive.
+    ///   If absolute (e.g. "/foo/bar.txt"), it will be treated as relative to the layer root (e.g. "foo/bar.txt").
+    ///   An archive_path of "/" is invalid for data.
+    /// - `content`: The byte slice containing the file content.
+    /// - `mode`: The file mode (permissions) to set for the data in the tar archive. Defaults to `0o644` if `None`.
+    #[instrument(level = "info", skip(self, content), fields(archive_path = %archive_path.as_ref().display(), content_len = content.len(), mode))]
+    pub fn data(
+        mut self,
+        archive_path: impl AsRef<Path>,
+        content: &[u8],
+        mode: Option<u32>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let ap_ref = archive_path.as_ref();
+        info!(
+            "Adding data to layer. Original archive path: {}",
+            ap_ref.display()
+        );
+
+        let normalized_ap = normalize_archive_path(ap_ref);
+        debug!(
+            "Normalized archive path for data: {}",
+            normalized_ap.display()
+        );
+
+        if normalized_ap.as_os_str().is_empty() {
+            warn!("Attempted to add data with an empty archive path (derived from root '/')");
+            return Err(Error::InvalidPath {
+                message: "Archive path for data cannot be the root directory ('/') or empty."
+                    .to_string(),
+            });
+        }
+
+        self.ensure_parent_dirs_exist(&normalized_ap)?;
+
+        let mut header = tar::Header::new_gnu();
+        header.set_size(content.len() as u64);
+        header.set_mtime(0);
+        header.set_uid(0);
+        header.set_gid(0);
+        header.set_mode(mode.unwrap_or(0o644));
+        // `append_data` sets the path in the header and calculates checksum.
+        self.tar_writer
+            .append_data(&mut header, &normalized_ap, content)
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                warn!(error = %e, "Failed to append data to tar.");
+                Error::Io {
+                    source: e,
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to append data as {} to tar",
+                        normalized_ap.display()
+                    ),
+                }
+            })?;
+
+        self.file_metadata.push(FileMetadata {
+            archive_path: normalized_ap,
+            size: content.len() as u64,
+            mtime: 0,
+            mode: mode.unwrap_or(0o644),
+            is_dir: false,
+        });
+
+        debug!("Successfully added data to layer.");
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    /// Finalizes the layer construction.
+    ///
+    /// This method completes the uncompressed tar archive, calculates its diff_id (SHA256 hash),
+    /// zstd-compresses the archive into a new temporary file, and returns the resulting `Layer`.
+    /// This is an asynchronous operation due to potentially blocking I/O for hashing and compression.
+    #[instrument(level = "info", skip_all, fields(uncompressed_tar_path = %self.uncompressed_tar_path.display()))]
+    pub async fn build(mut self) -> Result<Layer> {
+        info!("Building layer.");
+
+        // Get or create cache
+        let cache = match self.blob_cache.take() {
+            Some(c) => c,
+            None => blobcache::BlobCache::new()?,
+        };
+
+        // Try input-based cache key FIRST (before finalizing tar)
+        // This is much faster than hashing tar content for large binaries
+        let input_key = self.calculate_input_key();
+        debug!(input_key = %input_key, "Calculated layer input key from file metadata");
+        if let Some(cached_metadata) = cache.get_blob(&input_key).await? {
+            if let Ok(metadata_str) = std::str::from_utf8(&cached_metadata) {
+                if let Ok(metadata) = serde_json::from_str::<serde_json::Value>(metadata_str) {
+                    if let (Some(diff_id), Some(blob_digest)) = (
+                        metadata.get("diff_id").and_then(|v| v.as_str()),
+                        metadata.get("blob_digest").and_then(|v| v.as_str()),
+                    ) {
+                        if let Some(compressed_data) = cache.get_blob(blob_digest).await? {
+                            info!(
+                                input_key = %input_key,
+                                blob_digest = %blob_digest,
+                                "Found layer in cache via input key, skipping tar finalization"
+                            );
+
+                            let compressed_layer_file =
+                                NamedTempFile::new().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                                    source: e,
+                                    message: "Failed to create temporary file for cached layer"
+                                        .to_string(),
+                                })?;
+
+                            tokio::fs::write(compressed_layer_file.path(), &compressed_data)
+                                .await
+                                .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                                    source: e,
+                                    message: "Failed to write cached layer to temp file"
+                                        .to_string(),
+                                })?;
+
+                            return Ok(Layer {
+                                diff_id: diff_id.to_string(),
+                                blob_digest: blob_digest.to_string(),
+                                media_type: IMAGE_LAYER_ZSTD_MEDIA_TYPE.to_string(),
+                                compressed_layer_file,
+                            });
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Input-based cache miss - finalize the tar and try content-based cache
+        eprintln!("[DEBUG] INPUT CACHE MISS for input_key={}", input_key);
+        debug!("Input-based cache miss, finalizing tar");
+
+        // Finalize the tar writer, ensuring all data is flushed and the file is closed.
+        let uncompressed_tar_file_writer = self.tar_writer.into_inner().map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Failed to get underlying writer from tar builder.");
+            Error::Io {
+                source: e,
+                message: "Failed to get underlying writer from tar builder".to_string(),
+            }
+        })?;
+
+        uncompressed_tar_file_writer.sync_all().map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Failed to sync uncompressed tar file to disk.");
+            Error::Io {
+                source: e,
+                message: "Failed to sync uncompressed tar file to disk".to_string(),
+            }
+        })?;
+        drop(uncompressed_tar_file_writer); // Explicitly drop to release file handle before hashing/gzipping
+        debug!("Uncompressed tar finalized and synced.");
+
+        // Calculate content-based cache key from the uncompressed tar
+        let content_key = Self::calculate_content_key(&self.uncompressed_tar_path)?;
+        debug!(content_key = %content_key, "Calculated layer content key");
+
+        // Check if we have a cached blob for this content
+        if let Some(cached_metadata) = cache.get_blob(&content_key).await? {
+            // Parse the cached metadata (it's a JSON string with diff_id and blob_digest)
+            if let Ok(metadata_str) = std::str::from_utf8(&cached_metadata) {
+                if let Ok(metadata) = serde_json::from_str::<serde_json::Value>(metadata_str) {
+                    if let (Some(diff_id), Some(blob_digest)) = (
+                        metadata.get("diff_id").and_then(|v| v.as_str()),
+                        metadata.get("blob_digest").and_then(|v| v.as_str()),
+                    ) {
+                        // Try to get the actual compressed blob
+                        if let Some(compressed_data) = cache.get_blob(blob_digest).await? {
+                            info!(
+                                content_key = %content_key,
+                                blob_digest = %blob_digest,
+                                "Found layer in cache, skipping compression"
+                            );
+
+                            // Write the cached data to a temp file
+                            let compressed_layer_file =
+                                NamedTempFile::new().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                                    source: e,
+                                    message: "Failed to create temporary file for cached layer"
+                                        .to_string(),
+                                })?;
+
+                            tokio::fs::write(compressed_layer_file.path(), &compressed_data)
+                                .await
+                                .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                                    source: e,
+                                    message: "Failed to write cached layer to temp file"
+                                        .to_string(),
+                                })?;
+
+                            return Ok(Layer {
+                                diff_id: diff_id.to_string(),
+                                blob_digest: blob_digest.to_string(),
+                                media_type: IMAGE_LAYER_ZSTD_MEDIA_TYPE.to_string(),
+                                compressed_layer_file,
+                            });
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        info!("Layer not in cache, building from scratch");
+
+        // Calculate diff_id (SHA256 of the uncompressed tar file)
+        let path_for_hashing = self.uncompressed_tar_path.clone();
+        info!(path = %path_for_hashing.display(), "Calculating diff_id (SHA256 of uncompressed tar).");
+        let diff_id_hex = task::spawn_blocking(move || -> Result<String> {
+            let mut file = File::open(&path_for_hashing).map_err(|e| {
+                warn!(path = %path_for_hashing.display(), error = %e, "Hashing: Failed to open uncompressed tar.");
+                Error::Io {
+                    source: e,
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Hashing: Failed to open uncompressed tar {}",
+                        path_for_hashing.display()
+                    ),
+                }
+            })?;
+            let mut hasher = Sha256::new();
+            io::copy(&mut file, &mut hasher).map_err(|e| {
+                warn!(path = %path_for_hashing.display(), error = %e, "Hashing: Failed to read uncompressed tar.");
+                Error::Io {
+                    source: e,
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Hashing: Failed to read uncompressed tar {}",
+                        path_for_hashing.display()
+                    ),
+                }
+            })?;
+            let hash_bytes = hasher.finalize();
+            Result::Ok(format!("{:x}", hash_bytes)) // Ensure this Ok is crate::error::Result
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Task join error during hashing.");
+            Error::Join { // JoinError
+                source: e,
+                message: "Task join error during hashing".to_string(),
+            }
+        })??; // Outer Result for JoinError, inner Result for hashing logic
+        info!(diff_id = %format!("sha256:{}", diff_id_hex), "Calculated diff_id.");
+
+        // Compress the uncompressed tar with zstd into a new temporary file
+        let compressed_layer_file = NamedTempFile::new().map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Failed to create temporary file for compressed layer.");
+            Error::Io {
+                source: e,
+                message: "Failed to create temporary file for compressed layer".to_string(),
+            }
+        })?;
+        debug!(compressed_layer_path = %compressed_layer_file.path().display(), "Created temporary file for compressed layer.");
+
+        let compressed_writer_file_reopened = compressed_layer_file.reopen().map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Compression: Failed to reopen temporary file for zstd writer.");
+            Error::Io {
+                source: e,
+                message: "Compression: Failed to reopen temporary file for zstd writer".to_string(),
+            }
+        })?;
+
+        let path_for_compressing = self.uncompressed_tar_path.clone(); // path to uncompressed tar
+        info!(source_path = %path_for_compressing.display(), dest_path = %compressed_layer_file.path().display(), "Compressing uncompressed tar with zstd.");
+        task::spawn_blocking(move || -> Result<()> {
+            let mut uncompressed_reader =
+                File::open(&path_for_compressing).map_err(|e| {
+                    warn!(path = %path_for_compressing.display(), error = %e, "Compression: Failed to open uncompressed tar.");
+                    Error::Io {
+                        source: e,
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Compression: Failed to open uncompressed tar {}",
+                            path_for_compressing.display()
+                        ),
+                    }
+                })?;
+            // Use zstd compression level 3 for good balance of speed and compression
+            let mut zstd_encoder = zstd::Encoder::new(compressed_writer_file_reopened, 3).map_err(|e| {
+                warn!(error = %e, "Failed to create zstd encoder.");
+                Error::Io {
+                    source: e,
+                    message: "Failed to create zstd encoder".to_string(),
+                }
+            })?;
+            io::copy(&mut uncompressed_reader, &mut zstd_encoder).map_err(|e| {
+                warn!(error = %e, "Failed to compress tar data with zstd.");
+                Error::Io {
+                    source: e,
+                    message: "Failed to compress tar data with zstd".to_string(),
+                }
+            })?;
+            zstd_encoder.finish().map_err(|e| {
+                warn!(error = %e, "Failed to finalize zstd stream.");
+                Error::Io {
+                    source: e,
+                    message: "Failed to finalize zstd stream".to_string(),
+                }
+            })?;
+            Result::Ok(())
+        })
+        .await
+        .map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(error = %e, "Task join error during compression.");
+            Error::Join { // JoinError
+                source: e,
+                message: "Task join error during compression".to_string(),
+            }
+        })??;
+        info!("Compression completed.");
+
+        // Read the compressed file to calculate its digest and store in cache
+        info!(path = %compressed_layer_file.path().display(), "Reading compressed layer file for digest calculation and caching.");
+        let compressed_data = tokio::fs::read(compressed_layer_file.path()).await.map_err(|e| {
+            warn!(path = %compressed_layer_file.path().display(), error = %e, "Failed to read compressed layer file for caching.");
+            Error::Io {
+                message: format!("Failed to read compressed layer file for caching: {}", compressed_layer_file.path().display()),
+                source: e,
+            }
+        })?;
+
+        let blob_digest_sha256 = {
+            let mut hasher = Sha256::new();
+            hasher.update(&compressed_data);
+            format!("sha256:{:x}", hasher.finalize())
+        };
+        info!(blob_digest = %blob_digest_sha256, "Calculated blob digest for compressed layer.");
+
+        // Put into blob cache
+        info!(blob_digest = %blob_digest_sha256, "Storing compressed layer in blob cache.");
+        cache
+            .put_blob(&blob_digest_sha256, &compressed_data)
+            .await?;
+        info!(blob_digest = %blob_digest_sha256, "Compressed layer stored in blob cache.");
+
+        // Store metadata mapping from content_key to {diff_id, blob_digest}
+        // This allows future builds with the same content to skip compression
+        let metadata = serde_json::json!({
+            "diff_id": format!("sha256:{}", diff_id_hex),
+            "blob_digest": blob_digest_sha256
+        });
+        let metadata_bytes = serde_json::to_vec(&metadata).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            source: std::io::Error::other(e),
+            message: "Failed to serialize layer metadata".to_string(),
+        })?;
+        cache.put_blob(&content_key, &metadata_bytes).await?;
+        info!(content_key = %content_key, "Stored layer metadata for future cache hits");
+
+        // Also store input-based key mapping for faster future cache lookups
+        // This allows future builds with the same input files to skip tar hashing entirely
+        cache.put_blob(&input_key, &metadata_bytes).await?;
+        info!(input_key = %input_key, "Stored layer metadata with input key for faster cache lookups");
+
+        info!(diff_id = %format!("sha256:{}", diff_id_hex), blob_digest = %blob_digest_sha256, "Layer built successfully.");
+        Ok(Layer {
+            diff_id: format!("sha256:{}", diff_id_hex),
+            blob_digest: blob_digest_sha256,
+            media_type: IMAGE_LAYER_ZSTD_MEDIA_TYPE.to_string(),
+            compressed_layer_file,
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self), fields(path_in_archive = %path_in_archive.as_ref().display()))]
+    fn ensure_parent_dirs_exist(&mut self, path_in_archive: impl AsRef<Path>) -> Result<()> {
+        let path_in_archive = path_in_archive.as_ref();
+        if let Some(parent) = path_in_archive.parent() {
+            if parent.as_os_str().is_empty() {
+                return Ok(()); // No parent directory (e.g., file in root)
+            }
+
+            let mut paths_to_create = Vec::new();
+            let mut current_ancestor = parent;
+            // Collect all ancestor paths up to the root
+            loop {
+                if !current_ancestor.as_os_str().is_empty() {
+                    paths_to_create.push(current_ancestor.to_path_buf());
+                }
+                if let Some(p) = current_ancestor.parent() {
+                    current_ancestor = p;
+                } else {
+                    break; // Reached the top or an empty path
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Create directories from top-level downwards (e.g., "app", then "app/foo")
+            for p_to_create in paths_to_create.iter().rev() {
+                if !self.created_archive_dirs.contains(p_to_create) {
+                    debug!(
+                        "Ensuring directory {} exists in archive layer",
+                        p_to_create.display()
+                    );
+                    let mut header = tar::Header::new_gnu();
+                    // tar paths should be relative and use '/'
+                    header.set_path(p_to_create).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                        message: format!(
+                            "Failed to set path for directory header: {}",
+                            p_to_create.display()
+                        ),
+                        source: e,
+                    })?;
+                    header.set_size(0); // Directories have zero size
+                    header.set_mtime(0); // Consistent mtime, e.g., for reproducibility
+                    header.set_uid(0);
+                    header.set_gid(0);
+                    header.set_mode(0o755); // Standard directory permissions
+                    header.set_entry_type(tar::EntryType::Directory);
+                    // Checksum is handled by append
+
+                    // Append the header with an empty data stream for a directory
+                    let empty_data: &[u8] = &[];
+                    self.tar_writer
+                        .append_data(&mut header, p_to_create, empty_data)
+                        .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                            message: format!(
+                                "Failed to append directory header for: {}",
+                                p_to_create.display()
+                            ),
+                            source: e,
+                        })?;
+                    self.created_archive_dirs.insert(p_to_create.clone());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+// Helper function to normalize paths intended for the archive
+// Converts absolute paths like "/foo/bar" to relative "foo/bar".
+// A path like "/" becomes an empty path, suitable for archive root in some tar operations.
+fn normalize_archive_path(path_in_layer: &Path) -> PathBuf {
+    if path_in_layer.is_absolute() {
+        // .components() -> RootDir, "foo", "bar"
+        // .skip(1) -> "foo", "bar"
+        // .collect() -> "foo/bar"
+        // If path_in_layer is just "/", components().skip(1) is empty, collect() -> ""
+        path_in_layer.components().skip(1).collect::<PathBuf>()
+    } else {
+        path_in_layer.to_path_buf()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use std::{fs, io::Read as _};
+    use tar::Archive;
+    use tempfile::tempdir;
+
+    // Helper to extract tar content for verification
+    fn list_tar_contents(layer_path: &Path) -> Result<std::collections::HashMap<String, String>> {
+        let compressed_file = File::open(layer_path).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to open layer".into(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let tar_reader = zstd::Decoder::new(compressed_file).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create zstd decoder".into(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let mut archive = Archive::new(tar_reader);
+        let mut entries_found = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+
+        for entry_result in archive.entries().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to get entries".into(),
+            source: e,
+        })? {
+            let mut entry = entry_result.map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                message: "failed to get entry".into(),
+                source: e,
+            })?;
+            let mut path_str = entry
+                .path()
+                .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    message: "failed to get path".into(),
+                    source: e,
+                })?
+                .to_string_lossy()
+                .into_owned();
+            let mut content_str = String::new();
+            let is_dir = entry.header().entry_type().is_dir();
+
+            if is_dir {
+                if !path_str.ends_with("/") {
+                    path_str.push('/');
+                }
+            } else {
+                entry
+                    .read_to_string(&mut content_str)
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                        message: "failed to read to string".into(),
+                        source: e,
+                    })?;
+            }
+            entries_found.insert(path_str, content_str);
+        }
+        Ok(entries_found)
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_layer_creation_empty() -> Result<()> {
+        let layer = Layer::builder()?.build().await?;
+        assert!(layer.diff_id().starts_with("sha256:"));
+        assert!(layer.path().exists());
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_layer_with_data_absolute_path() -> Result<()> {
+        let content = b"hello absolute world";
+        let layer = Layer::builder()?
+            .data("/app/hello_abs.txt", content, None)?
+            .build()
+            .await?;
+
+        let entries = list_tar_contents(layer.path())?;
+        assert_eq!(
+            entries.get("app/hello_abs.txt").unwrap(),
+            "hello absolute world"
+        );
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_layer_with_data_relative_path() -> Result<()> {
+        let content = b"hello relative world";
+        let layer = Layer::builder()?
+            .data("app/hello_rel.txt", content, None)?
+            .build()
+            .await?;
+
+        let entries = list_tar_contents(layer.path())?;
+        assert_eq!(
+            entries.get("app/hello_rel.txt").unwrap(),
+            "hello relative world"
+        );
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_layer_with_data_root_path_error() -> Result<()> {
+        let builder = Layer::builder()?;
+        let result_of_data_call = builder.data("/", b"root data", None); // No '?' here, check this call's result
+
+        assert!(
+            result_of_data_call.is_err(),
+            "Expected .data(\"/\", ...) to fail for root path data"
+        );
+        match result_of_data_call {
+            Err(Error::InvalidPath { message }) => {
+                assert!(message.contains("Archive path for data cannot be the root directory"));
+            }
+            Err(other_error) => {
+                panic!(
+                    "Expected Error::InvalidPath from .data(), but got {:?}",
+                    other_error
+                );
+            }
+            Ok(_) => {
+                panic!("Expected .data(\"/\", ...) to fail, but it succeeded building a LayerBuilder instance.");
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_layer_with_file_absolute_path() -> Result<()> {
+        let temp_root = tempdir().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create tempdir".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let source_file_disk = temp_root.path().join("source_abs.txt");
+        fs::write(&source_file_disk, "absolute file content").map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to write to source_abs.txt".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+
+        let layer = Layer::builder()?
+            .file(&source_file_disk, "/app/file_abs.txt", None)?
+            .build()
+            .await?;
+
+        let entries = list_tar_contents(layer.path())?;
+        assert_eq!(
+            entries.get("app/file_abs.txt").unwrap(),
+            "absolute file content"
+        );
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_layer_with_file_root_path_error() -> Result<()> {
+        let temp_root = tempdir().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create tempdir".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let source_file_disk = temp_root.path().join("source_root.txt");
+        fs::write(&source_file_disk, "root file content").map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to write to source_root.txt".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+
+        let builder = Layer::builder()?;
+        let result_of_file_call = builder.file(&source_file_disk, "/", None); // No '?' here, check this call's result
+
+        assert!(
+            result_of_file_call.is_err(),
+            "Expected .file(\"/\", ...) to fail for root path file"
+        );
+        match result_of_file_call {
+            Err(Error::InvalidPath { message }) => {
+                assert!(message.contains("Archive path for file"));
+            }
+            Err(other_error) => {
+                panic!(
+                    "Expected Error::InvalidPath from .file(), but got {:?}",
+                    other_error
+                );
+            }
+            Ok(_) => {
+                panic!("Expected .file(\"/\", ...) to fail, but it succeeded building a LayerBuilder instance.");
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_layer_with_directory_absolute_path() -> Result<()> {
+        let temp_root = tempdir().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create tempdir".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let source_dir_disk = temp_root.path().join("my_dir_abs");
+        fs::create_dir_all(source_dir_disk.join("sub")).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create_dir_all".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        fs::write(
+            source_dir_disk.join("sub/file_in_dir.txt"),
+            "dir content abs",
+        )
+        .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to write to file_in_dir.txt".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+
+        let layer = Layer::builder()?
+            .directory(&source_dir_disk, "/archived_dir_abs")?
+            .build()
+            .await?;
+
+        let entries = list_tar_contents(layer.path())?;
+        assert!(entries.contains_key("archived_dir_abs/sub/"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            entries.get("archived_dir_abs/sub/file_in_dir.txt").unwrap(),
+            "dir content abs"
+        );
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_layer_with_directory_root_path() -> Result<()> {
+        // Adding a directory with archive_path "/" means its *contents* go to the layer's root.
+        let temp_root = tempdir().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create tempdir".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let source_dir_disk = temp_root.path().join("my_dir_for_root");
+        fs::create_dir_all(source_dir_disk.join("sub_at_root")).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create_dir_all".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        fs::write(source_dir_disk.join("file_at_root.txt"), "root dir content").map_err(|e| {
+            Error::Io {
+                message: "failed to write to file_at_root.txt".to_string(),
+                source: e,
+            }
+        })?;
+        fs::write(
+            source_dir_disk.join("sub_at_root/nested.txt"),
+            "nested root",
+        )
+        .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to write to nested.txt".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+
+        let layer = Layer::builder()?
+            .directory(&source_dir_disk, "/")? // Contents of my_dir_for_root should be at archive root
+            .build()
+            .await?;
+
+        let entries = list_tar_contents(layer.path())?;
+        assert!(entries.contains_key("sub_at_root/"));
+        assert_eq!(entries.get("file_at_root.txt").unwrap(), "root dir content");
+        assert_eq!(
+            entries.get("sub_at_root/nested.txt").unwrap(),
+            "nested root"
+        );
+        // The directory "my_dir_for_root" itself should not appear in the path.
+        assert!(!entries.contains_key(&format!(
+            "{}/file_at_root.txt",
+            source_dir_disk.file_name().unwrap().to_string_lossy()
+        )));
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_layer_with_data() -> Result<()> {
+        let content = b"hello world";
+        let layer = Layer::builder()?
+            .data("hello.txt", content, Some(0o755))?
+            .build()
+            .await?;
+
+        assert!(layer.diff_id().starts_with("sha256:"));
+        assert!(layer.path().exists());
+
+        // Verify tar content
+        let compressed_file = File::open(layer.path()).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to open layer path".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let tar_reader = zstd::Decoder::new(compressed_file).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create zstd decoder".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let mut archive = Archive::new(tar_reader);
+        let mut found = false;
+        for entry_result in archive.entries().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to get archive entries".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })? {
+            let mut entry = entry_result.map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                message: "failed to get entry".to_string(),
+                source: e,
+            })?;
+            if entry
+                .path()
+                .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    message: "failed to get entry path".to_string(),
+                    source: e,
+                })?
+                .to_string_lossy()
+                == "hello.txt"
+            {
+                let mut s = String::new();
+                entry.read_to_string(&mut s).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    message: "failed to read entry to string".to_string(),
+                    source: e,
+                })?;
+                assert_eq!(s, "hello world");
+                found = true;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(found, "File 'hello.txt' not found in layer");
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_layer_with_file_and_dir() -> Result<()> {
+        let temp_root = tempdir().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create tempdir".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+
+        // Create a directory on disk to add
+        let source_dir_disk = temp_root.path().join("mydir_on_disk");
+        fs::create_dir(&source_dir_disk).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create source_dir_disk".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        fs::write(source_dir_disk.join("file1.txt"), "content1").map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to write to file1.txt".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        fs::write(source_dir_disk.join("file2.txt"), "content2").map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to write to file2.txt".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+
+        // Add a subdirectory with a file to test recursion
+        let sub_dir_disk = source_dir_disk.join("my_subdir");
+        fs::create_dir(&sub_dir_disk).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create sub_dir_disk".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        fs::write(sub_dir_disk.join("nested_file.txt"), "nested_content").map_err(|e| {
+            Error::Io {
+                message: "failed to write to nested_file.txt".to_string(),
+                source: e,
+            }
+        })?;
+
+        // Create an individual file on disk to add
+        let source_file_disk = temp_root.path().join("individual_on_disk.txt");
+        fs::write(&source_file_disk, "individual_content").map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to write to individual_on_disk.txt".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+
+        let layer = Layer::builder()?
+            .directory(&source_dir_disk, "archived_dir")? // Add dir to "archived_dir/" in layer
+            .file(
+                &source_file_disk,
+                "archived_dir/renamed_individual.txt",
+                None,
+            )? // Add file into "archived_dir/"
+            .data("root_file.txt", b"root data", None)? // Add data to root with default mode
+            .build()
+            .await?;
+
+        assert!(layer.diff_id().starts_with("sha256:"));
+        assert!(layer.path().exists());
+
+        // Verify tar content
+        let compressed_file = File::open(layer.path()).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to open layer path".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let tar_reader = zstd::Decoder::new(compressed_file).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create zstd decoder".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let mut archive = Archive::new(tar_reader);
+        let mut entries_found = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+
+        for entry_result in archive.entries().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to get archive entries".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })? {
+            let mut entry = entry_result.map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                message: "failed to get entry".to_string(),
+                source: e,
+            })?;
+            let path_str = entry
+                .path()
+                .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    message: "failed to get entry path".to_string(),
+                    source: e,
+                })?
+                .to_string_lossy()
+                .into_owned();
+            let mut content = String::new();
+            if !entry.header().entry_type().is_dir() {
+                // Only read content for files
+                entry.read_to_string(&mut content).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    message: "failed to read entry to string".to_string(),
+                    source: e,
+                })?;
+            }
+            entries_found.insert(path_str, content);
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            entries_found.get("archived_dir/file1.txt").unwrap(),
+            "content1"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            entries_found.get("archived_dir/file2.txt").unwrap(),
+            "content2"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            entries_found
+                .get("archived_dir/renamed_individual.txt")
+                .unwrap(),
+            "individual_content"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(entries_found.get("root_file.txt").unwrap(), "root data");
+        assert!(entries_found.contains_key("archived_dir/")); // Check if directory entry itself exists
+        assert_eq!(
+            entries_found
+                .get("archived_dir/my_subdir/nested_file.txt")
+                .unwrap(),
+            "nested_content"
+        );
+
+        // New assertion for the subdirectory entry
+        let mut subdir_entry_found_in_archive = false;
+        // Re-open archive for a fresh iteration if entries() consumes it, or clone if possible.
+        // For simplicity, let's assume we can re-iterate or the previous loop collected all paths.
+        // If not, this test needs restructuring to iterate once and check all conditions.
+        // Given the test structure, it's better to check entries_found map directly.
+
+        let subdir_path1 = "archived_dir/my_subdir";
+        let subdir_path2 = "archived_dir/my_subdir/"; // Check with trailing slash as well
+
+        if let Some(content) = entries_found.get(subdir_path1) {
+            if content.is_empty() {
+                // Directories usually have empty content string in this map setup
+                // To be more robust, we'd need to store EntryType in the map or re-iterate the archive.
+                // For now, assume if the key exists and content is empty, it might be a dir.
+                // This isn't a perfect check for it being a directory based on entries_found alone.
+                // The original test was better by iterating the archive directly for this check.
+                // Let's revert to a direct archive iteration for this specific check for robustness.
+                let compressed_file_recheck = File::open(layer.path()).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    message: "failed to open layer path".to_string(),
+                    source: e,
+                })?;
+                let tar_reader_recheck =
+                    zstd::Decoder::new(compressed_file_recheck).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                        message: "failed to create zstd decoder".to_string(),
+                        source: e,
+                    })?;
+                let mut archive_recheck = Archive::new(tar_reader_recheck);
+                for entry_result in archive_recheck.entries().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    message: "failed to get archive entries".to_string(),
+                    source: e,
+                })? {
+                    let entry = entry_result.map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                        message: "failed to get entry".to_string(),
+                        source: e,
+                    })?;
+                    let path_cow = entry.path().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                        message: "failed to get entry path".to_string(),
+                        source: e,
+                    })?;
+                    if (path_cow == Path::new(subdir_path1) || path_cow == Path::new(subdir_path2))
+                        && entry.header().entry_type().is_dir()
+                    {
+                        subdir_entry_found_in_archive = true;
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        } else if let Some(content) = entries_found.get(subdir_path2) {
+            if content.is_empty() {
+                let compressed_file_recheck = File::open(layer.path()).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    message: "failed to open layer path".to_string(),
+                    source: e,
+                })?;
+                let tar_reader_recheck =
+                    zstd::Decoder::new(compressed_file_recheck).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                        message: "failed to create zstd decoder".to_string(),
+                        source: e,
+                    })?;
+                let mut archive_recheck = Archive::new(tar_reader_recheck);
+                for entry_result in archive_recheck.entries().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    message: "failed to get archive entries".to_string(),
+                    source: e,
+                })? {
+                    let entry = entry_result.map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                        message: "failed to get entry".to_string(),
+                        source: e,
+                    })?;
+                    let path_cow = entry.path().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                        message: "failed to get entry path".to_string(),
+                        source: e,
+                    })?;
+                    if (path_cow == Path::new(subdir_path1) || path_cow == Path::new(subdir_path2))
+                        && entry.header().entry_type().is_dir()
+                    {
+                        subdir_entry_found_in_archive = true;
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(
+            subdir_entry_found_in_archive,
+            "Directory entry 'archived_dir/my_subdir[/]' not found or not a directory"
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_compressed_temp_file_deleted_on_drop() -> Result<()> {
+        let layer_path_before_drop;
+        {
+            let layer = Layer::builder()?.build().await?;
+            layer_path_before_drop = layer.path().to_path_buf();
+            assert!(
+                layer_path_before_drop.exists(),
+                "Compressed temp file should exist while Layer is in scope"
+            );
+        } // Layer is dropped here
+
+        assert!(
+            !layer_path_before_drop.exists(),
+            "Compressed temp file should be deleted after Layer is dropped"
+        );
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_directory_to_archive_root() -> Result<()> {
+        let temp_root = tempdir().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create tempdir".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+
+        // 1. Create a source directory on disk with some files
+        let source_dir_on_disk = temp_root.path().join("my_app_files");
+        fs::create_dir(&source_dir_on_disk).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create source_dir_on_disk".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        fs::write(source_dir_on_disk.join("app.js"), "console.log('app');").map_err(|e| {
+            Error::Io {
+                message: "failed to write to app.js".to_string(),
+                source: e,
+            }
+        })?;
+        fs::write(
+            source_dir_on_disk.join("styles.css"),
+            "body { color: blue; }",
+        )
+        .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to write to styles.css".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+
+        // 2. Build the layer, copying the directory to the archive root "."
+        let layer = Layer::builder()?
+            .directory(&source_dir_on_disk, ".")?
+            .build()
+            .await?;
+
+        assert!(layer.diff_id().starts_with("sha256:"));
+        assert!(layer.path().exists());
+
+        // 3. Verify tar content
+        let compressed_file = File::open(layer.path()).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to open layer path".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let tar_reader = zstd::Decoder::new(compressed_file).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create zstd decoder".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let mut archive = Archive::new(tar_reader);
+        let mut entries_found = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+
+        for entry_result in archive.entries().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to get archive entries".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })? {
+            let mut entry = entry_result.map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                message: "failed to get entry".to_string(),
+                source: e,
+            })?;
+            let path_str = entry
+                .path()
+                .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    message: "failed to get entry path".to_string(),
+                    source: e,
+                })?
+                .to_string_lossy()
+                .into_owned();
+            let mut content = String::new();
+            if !entry.header().entry_type().is_dir() {
+                entry.read_to_string(&mut content).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    message: "failed to read entry to string".to_string(),
+                    source: e,
+                })?;
+            }
+            entries_found.insert(path_str, content);
+        }
+
+        // Check that files are at the root
+        assert_eq!(entries_found.get("app.js").unwrap(), "console.log('app');");
+        assert_eq!(
+            entries_found.get("styles.css").unwrap(),
+            "body { color: blue; }"
+        );
+
+        // Check that the source directory name itself is NOT part of the path in the archive
+        assert!(
+            !entries_found.contains_key("my_app_files/app.js"),
+            "Path should not include source dir name"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !entries_found.contains_key("my_app_files/"),
+            "Source directory itself should not be an entry when copied to root"
+        );
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn test_layer_with_file_mode_override() -> Result<()> {
+        let temp_root = tempdir().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create tempdir".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let source_file_disk = temp_root.path().join("test_mode.txt");
+        fs::write(&source_file_disk, "mode test content").map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to write to test_mode.txt".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+
+        // Ensure original file has known, non-execute permissions for the test
+        #[cfg(unix)]
+        {
+            use std::os::unix::fs::PermissionsExt;
+            let mut perms = fs::metadata(&source_file_disk)
+                .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    message: "failed to get metadata".to_string(),
+                    source: e,
+                })?
+                .permissions();
+            perms.set_mode(0o644); // rw-r--r--
+            fs::set_permissions(&source_file_disk, perms).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                message: "failed to set permissions".to_string(),
+                source: e,
+            })?;
+        }
+        // On non-unix, we rely on default file creation masks, the key is that it's unlikely to be 0o755 by default.
+
+        let layer = Layer::builder()?
+            .file(&source_file_disk, "app/executable.txt", Some(0o755))? // Override to rwxr-xr-x
+            .file(&source_file_disk, "app/normal.txt", None)? // Keep original (0o644)
+            .build()
+            .await?;
+
+        let compressed_file = File::open(layer.path()).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to open layer path".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let tar_reader = zstd::Decoder::new(compressed_file).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to create zstd decoder".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let mut archive = Archive::new(tar_reader);
+        let mut modes = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+
+        for entry_result in archive.entries().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+            message: "failed to get archive entries".to_string(),
+            source: e,
+        })? {
+            let entry = entry_result.map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                message: "failed to get entry".to_string(),
+                source: e,
+            })?;
+            let path_str = entry
+                .path()
+                .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                    message: "failed to get entry path".to_string(),
+                    source: e,
+                })?
+                .to_string_lossy()
+                .into_owned();
+            if path_str == "app/executable.txt" || path_str == "app/normal.txt" {
+                modes.insert(
+                    path_str,
+                    entry.header().mode().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                        message: "failed to get mode".to_string(),
+                        source: e,
+                    })?,
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            modes.get("app/executable.txt").unwrap(),
+            &0o755,
+            "Mode for executable.txt should be overridden to 0o755"
+        );
+        // We set it to 0o644 explicitly above on Unix.
+        // On non-Unix, the original permissions might vary, but the key is that it should NOT be 0o755 from the override.
+        // For consistency and to make the assert more robust, let's check it's not 0o755 if not unix,
+        // and specifically 0o644 if unix.
+        if cfg!(unix) {
+            assert_eq!(
+                modes.get("app/normal.txt").unwrap() & 0o777,
+                0o644,
+                "Mode for normal.txt should be original 0o644 on unix (permission bits)"
+            );
+        } else {
+            assert_ne!(
+                modes.get("app/normal.txt").unwrap(),
+                &0o755,
+                "Mode for normal.txt should not be 0o755 on non-unix (was not overridden)"
+            );
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/lib.rs b/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..14a2843
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+//! # Dockdash
+//!
+//! Build and push OCI container images from Rust — no Docker daemon required.
+//!
+//! Dockdash lets you programmatically create OCI-compliant container images,
+//! add layers from files or raw bytes, and push them to any OCI registry.
+//! It works anywhere Rust runs: CI pipelines, serverless functions, CLIs, or
+//! embedded tooling.
+//!
+//! ## Quick Start
+//!
+//! ```no_run
+//! use dockdash::{Arch, Image, Layer, PushOptions, Result};
+//! use std::path::PathBuf;
+//!
+//! # async fn example() -> Result<()> {
+//! let layer = Layer::builder()?
+//!     .file("./my-binary", "./app", Some(0o755))?
+//!     .build()
+//!     .await?;
+//!
+//! let (image, _) = Image::builder()
+//!     .from("ubuntu:latest")
+//!     .platform("linux", &Arch::ARM64)
+//!     .layer(layer)
+//!     .entrypoint(vec!["/app".to_string()])
+//!     .build()
+//!     .await?;
+//!
+//! image.push("registry.example.com/my-app:latest", &PushOptions::default()).await?;
+//! # Ok(())
+//! # }
+//! ```
+
+mod error;
+pub use error::*;
+
+mod layer;
+pub use layer::*;
+
+mod image;
+pub use image::*;
+
+mod blobcache;
+pub use blobcache::*;
+
+pub use oci_client::client::ClientProtocol;
+pub use oci_client::secrets::RegistryAuth;
+pub use oci_spec::image::Arch;
+
+#[cfg(feature = "test-utils")]
+pub mod test_utils;
diff --git a/src/test_utils.rs b/src/test_utils.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..52bb887
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test_utils.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+use crate::{ClientProtocol, PushOptions, RegistryAuth, Result};
+use container_registry::test_support::RunningRegistry;
+use container_registry::ContainerRegistry;
+use tracing::info;
+
+// Helper to set up and run a local container registry
+// Returns the running registry guard and the host string (e.g., "localhost:12345")
+pub async fn setup_local_registry() -> Result<(RunningRegistry, String)> {
+    info!("Setting up and running local container registry in background...");
+    let running_registry = ContainerRegistry::builder()
+        .build_for_testing()
+        .run_in_background();
+    let local_registry_addr = running_registry.bound_addr();
+    let local_registry_host = format!("localhost:{}", local_registry_addr.port());
+    info!(
+        "Local container registry listening on: {}",
+        local_registry_host
+    );
+    Ok((running_registry, local_registry_host))
+}
+
+/// Returns default PushOptions for interacting with the local test registry.
+pub fn test_push_options() -> PushOptions {
+    PushOptions {
+        auth: RegistryAuth::Anonymous,
+        protocol: ClientProtocol::Http,
+        ..Default::default()
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/build_push_tests.rs b/tests/build_push_tests.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a32595
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/build_push_tests.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1296 @@
+use bollard::container::{
+    CreateContainerOptions, LogOutput, LogsOptions, RemoveContainerOptions, StartContainerOptions,
+    WaitContainerOptions,
+};
+use bollard::image::CreateImageOptions;
+use bollard::Docker;
+use container_registry::ContainerRegistry;
+use dockdash::{
+    Arch, BlobCache, ClientProtocol, Image, Layer, ManifestSource, PullPolicy, PushOptions,
+    RegistryAuth,
+};
+use dockdash::{Error, Result};
+use futures_util::stream::StreamExt;
+use futures_util::TryStreamExt;
+use rand::distr::Alphanumeric;
+use rand::{rng, Rng};
+use sec::Secret;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::default::Default;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use tempfile::{tempdir, TempDir};
+use tracing::{debug, error, info};
+
+use std::sync::Once;
+
+use dockdash::test_utils;
+
+static TEST_SETUP: Once = Once::new();
+
+// Setup function for test environment
+fn setup_test_environment() {
+    TEST_SETUP.call_once(|| {
+        let _ = tracing_subscriber::fmt().try_init();
+        info!("Test environment setup complete.");
+    });
+}
+
+// Helper to set up a temporary blob cache
+fn setup_blob_cache() -> Result<(BlobCache, TempDir)> {
+    let temp_cache_dir = tempdir().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+        message: e.to_string(),
+        source: e,
+    })?;
+    info!(
+        "Using temporary blob cache for test at: {}",
+        temp_cache_dir.path().display()
+    );
+    let shared_blob_cache = BlobCache::with_path(temp_cache_dir.path().to_path_buf())?;
+    Ok((shared_blob_cache, temp_cache_dir))
+}
+
+// Helper to pull an image using Bollard
+async fn pull_image_with_bollard(
+    docker: &Docker,
+    local_registry_host: &str,
+    target_image_repo_namespaced: &str,
+    image_tag: &str,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    info!(
+        "Pulling image {}/{}_tag:{} using Bollard...",
+        local_registry_host, target_image_repo_namespaced, image_tag
+    );
+
+    let registry_creds = bollard::auth::DockerCredentials {
+        serveraddress: Some(format!("http://{}", local_registry_host)),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+
+    // Construct the correct from_image for Bollard, including the registry host
+    let bollard_from_image = format!("{}/{}", local_registry_host, target_image_repo_namespaced);
+
+    let mut pull_stream = docker.create_image(
+        Some(CreateImageOptions {
+            from_image: bollard_from_image,
+            tag: image_tag.to_string(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+        None,
+        Some(registry_creds),
+    );
+
+    while let Some(pull_result) = pull_stream.next().await {
+        match pull_result {
+            Ok(info_msg) => {
+                if let Some(status) = info_msg.status {
+                    debug!("Pull status: {}", status);
+                }
+                if let Some(progress) = info_msg.progress {
+                    debug!("Pull progress: {}", progress);
+                }
+            }
+            Err(e) => {
+                error!("Error during image pull: {:?}", e);
+                return Err(Error::ImagePull {
+                    image_ref: format!("{}/{}", local_registry_host, target_image_repo_namespaced),
+                    message: format!("Bollard image pull failed for tag {}: {}", image_tag, e),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                });
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    info!(
+        "Image {}/{}:{} pulled successfully via Bollard.",
+        local_registry_host, target_image_repo_namespaced, image_tag
+    );
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+// Guard for managing Bollard container lifecycle
+struct BollardContainerGuard<'a> {
+    docker: &'a Docker,
+    id: String,
+    name: String,
+}
+
+impl<'a> BollardContainerGuard<'a> {
+    async fn new(
+        docker: &'a Docker,
+        image_ref: &str,
+        container_name: String,
+        platform_arch: &str,
+        env_param: Option<Vec<String>>,
+        override_entrypoint: Option<Vec<String>>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        info!(
+            "Creating container '{}' from image '{}' with env: {:?}, entrypoint override: {:?}",
+            container_name, image_ref, env_param, override_entrypoint
+        );
+
+        let processed_env_for_config: Option<Vec<&str>> =
+            env_param.as_ref().map(|actual_env_vec_string| {
+                actual_env_vec_string
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|s_string| s_string.as_str())
+                    .collect::<Vec<&str>>()
+            });
+
+        let processed_entrypoint_for_config: Option<Vec<&str>> =
+            override_entrypoint
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|actual_entrypoint_vec_string| {
+                    actual_entrypoint_vec_string
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|s_string| s_string.as_str())
+                        .collect::<Vec<&str>>()
+                });
+
+        let container_config = bollard::container::Config {
+            image: Some(image_ref),
+            tty: Some(true),
+            env: processed_env_for_config,
+            entrypoint: processed_entrypoint_for_config,
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        let create_options = Some(CreateContainerOptions {
+            name: container_name.clone(),
+            platform: Some(platform_arch.to_string()),
+        });
+
+        let response = docker
+            .create_container(create_options, container_config)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| Error::Generic {
+                message: format!("Failed to create container '{}': {}", container_name, e),
+                source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+            })?;
+        let container_id_str = response.id;
+        info!(
+            "Container '{}' created with ID: {}",
+            container_name, container_id_str
+        );
+
+        info!("Starting container ID: {}...", container_id_str);
+        docker
+            .start_container(&container_id_str, None::<StartContainerOptions<String>>)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| Error::Generic {
+                message: format!("Failed to start container '{}': {}", container_id_str, e),
+                source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+            })?;
+        info!("Container {} started.", container_id_str);
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            docker,
+            id: container_id_str,
+            name: container_name,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn id(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.id
+    }
+
+    #[allow(dead_code)] // Potentially useful for other tests
+    fn name(&self) -> &str {
+        &self.name
+    }
+
+    async fn logs(&self) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+        info!("Fetching logs for container {}...", self.id);
+        let logs_options = Some(LogsOptions::<String> {
+            follow: true, // Set to false if you only want logs up to current point
+            stdout: true,
+            stderr: true,
+            timestamps: false,
+            ..Default::default()
+        });
+
+        let mut log_stream = self.docker.logs(&self.id, logs_options);
+        let mut log_lines: Vec<String> = Vec::new();
+
+        // If follow is true, this might block indefinitely if the container keeps running.
+        // For a test that expects termination, this should be fine.
+        // Or set follow: false and call logs after wait_for_completion.
+        // For this specific test, the container echoes and exits, so follow: true is okay.
+        while let Some(log_entry_result) = log_stream.next().await {
+            match log_entry_result {
+                Ok(log_entry) => {
+                    let log_message = match log_entry {
+                        LogOutput::StdOut { message } => {
+                            String::from_utf8_lossy(&message).to_string()
+                        }
+                        LogOutput::StdErr { message } => {
+                            String::from_utf8_lossy(&message).to_string()
+                        }
+                        LogOutput::Console { message } => {
+                            String::from_utf8_lossy(&message).to_string()
+                        }
+                        _ => continue,
+                    };
+                    info!("Log: {}", log_message.trim());
+                    log_lines.push(log_message.trim().to_string());
+                }
+                Err(e) => {
+                    error!("Error streaming logs: {:?}", e);
+                    // Decide if to return error or just log
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        info!("Finished fetching logs for container {}.", self.id);
+        Ok(log_lines)
+    }
+
+    async fn wait_for_completion(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        info!("Waiting for container {} to complete...", self.id);
+        let wait_options = Some(WaitContainerOptions {
+            condition: "not-running",
+        });
+        let mut wait_stream = self.docker.wait_container(&self.id, wait_options);
+        let wait_result = wait_stream.try_next().await.map_err(|e| Error::Generic {
+            message: format!("Failed to wait for container '{}': {}", self.id, e),
+            source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+        })?;
+
+        if let Some(response) = wait_result {
+            info!(
+                "Container {} exited with status code: {}",
+                self.id, response.status_code
+            );
+            assert_eq!(
+                response.status_code, 0,
+                "Container did not exit cleanly. Logs might provide more details."
+            );
+            if let Some(error) = response.error {
+                error!("Container exit error: {:?}", error.message);
+                return Err(Error::Generic {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Container exited with error: {}",
+                        error.message.unwrap_or_else(|| "Unknown error".to_string())
+                    ),
+                    source: None,
+                });
+            }
+        } else {
+            return Err(Error::Generic {
+                message: format!("Did not receive container exit status for {}.", self.id),
+                source: None,
+            });
+        }
+        info!("Container {} completed.", self.id);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn cleanup(self) -> Result<()> {
+        info!("Removing container {} (ID: {})...", self.name, self.id);
+        self.docker
+            .remove_container(
+                &self.id,
+                Some(RemoveContainerOptions {
+                    force: true,
+                    ..Default::default()
+                }),
+            )
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| Error::Generic {
+                message: format!("Failed to remove container '{}': {}", self.id, e),
+                source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+            })?;
+        info!("Container {} (ID: {}) removed.", self.name, self.id);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Tests the basic end-to-end flow of building an image with a single layer,
+/// pushing it to a local registry, pulling it back using Bollard, running it as a container,
+/// and verifying its output logs.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_build_push_pull_run_image() -> Result<()> {
+    setup_test_environment();
+
+    // 1. Setup local container registry using the utility
+    let (_running_registry, local_registry_host) = test_utils::setup_local_registry().await?;
+    // _running_registry is kept to ensure the registry runs for the duration of the test
+
+    // Setup image naming
+    let unique_repo_name = generate_unique_image_name();
+    let image_tag = "latest";
+    let image_namespace = "testns";
+    let target_image_repo_namespaced = format!("{}/{}", image_namespace, unique_repo_name);
+    let target_image_ref = format!(
+        "{}/{}:{}",
+        local_registry_host, target_image_repo_namespaced, image_tag
+    );
+    info!("Target image for test: {}", target_image_ref);
+
+    // Setup custom BlobCache for this test
+    let (shared_blob_cache, _temp_cache_dir) = setup_blob_cache()?;
+    // _temp_cache_dir is kept to ensure the cache directory exists for the duration of the test
+
+    // 2. Create a simple layer
+    let layer_content = "Hello from Dockdash!";
+    let layer_file_path_in_container = "/app/hello.txt";
+
+    info!("Creating layer with content: '{}'", layer_content);
+    let layer = Layer::builder()?
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .data(layer_file_path_in_container, layer_content.as_bytes(), None)?
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!(
+        "Layer created successfully. Diff ID: {}, Blob Digest: {}",
+        layer.diff_id(),
+        layer.blob_digest()
+    );
+
+    // 3. Build the image
+    let base_image =
+        "ubuntu@sha256:736e224eff152057af468d34e0a495e57e7f70d274a012897d10461527f0ca55";
+    let platform_os = "linux";
+    let platform_arch = Arch::ARM64;
+    let entrypoint_cmd = format!(
+        "echo 'Container says hi!' && cat {} && echo 'Container finished.'",
+        layer_file_path_in_container
+    );
+    let entrypoint = vec!["/bin/sh".to_string(), "-c".to_string(), entrypoint_cmd];
+
+    info!(
+        "Building image from base '{}' with entrypoint: {:?}",
+        base_image, entrypoint
+    );
+    let (image, _) = Image::builder()
+        .from(base_image)
+        .platform(platform_os, &platform_arch)
+        .layer(layer)
+        .entrypoint(entrypoint.clone())
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache)
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!(
+        "Image built successfully. OCI Archive Path: {:?}, Config Digest: {}",
+        image.path(),
+        image.config_digest()
+    );
+
+    // 4. Push the image to local registry
+    info!("Pushing image to {}...", target_image_ref);
+    let push_opts = test_utils::test_push_options();
+    let pushed_image_ref = image.push(&target_image_ref, &push_opts).await?;
+    assert_eq!(pushed_image_ref, target_image_ref);
+    info!("Image pushed successfully to: {}", pushed_image_ref);
+
+    // 5. Bollard: Connect to Docker
+    info!("Connecting to Docker daemon via Bollard...");
+    let docker = Docker::connect_with_local_defaults().map_err(|e| Error::Generic {
+        message: format!("Failed to connect to Docker: {}", e),
+        source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+    })?;
+    info!(
+        "Connected to Docker version: {:?}",
+        docker.version().await.map_err(|e| Error::Generic {
+            message: format!("Failed to get Docker version: {}", e),
+            source: Some(Box::new(e))
+        })?
+    );
+
+    // 6. Bollard: Pull the image
+    pull_image_with_bollard(
+        &docker,
+        &local_registry_host,
+        &target_image_repo_namespaced,
+        image_tag,
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    // 7. Bollard: Create, start, and manage the container
+    let container_name = format!("{}-container", unique_repo_name);
+    let container_guard = BollardContainerGuard::new(
+        &docker,
+        &target_image_ref, // Use the full image ref for creating container
+        container_name,
+        &platform_arch.to_string(),
+        None, // Add None for env
+        None, // Add None for override_entrypoint
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    // 8. Fetch logs & verify
+    let log_lines = container_guard.logs().await?;
+
+    // 9. Bollard: Wait for container to complete
+    container_guard.wait_for_completion().await?;
+
+    // 10. Verify logs
+    let full_logs = log_lines.join("\n");
+    info!("Collected logs:\n{}", full_logs);
+
+    assert!(
+        full_logs.contains("Container says hi!"),
+        "Log verification failed: 'Container says hi!' not found. Logs: {}",
+        full_logs
+    );
+    assert!(
+        full_logs.contains(layer_content),
+        "Log verification failed: Layer content '{}' not found. Logs: {}",
+        layer_content,
+        full_logs
+    );
+    assert!(
+        full_logs.contains("Container finished."),
+        "Log verification failed: 'Container finished.' not found. Logs: {}",
+        full_logs
+    );
+    info!("Log content verified successfully.");
+
+    // 11. Bollard: Clean up - remove container (handled by guard's cleanup)
+    container_guard.cleanup().await?;
+
+    // _running_registry and _temp_cache_dir will be dropped here,
+    // shutting down the server and cleaning up temp storage.
+    info!("Local container registry server will shut down and temp cache dir will be removed as guards are dropped.");
+
+    info!("Integration test completed successfully!");
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Tests a scenario where an image is pushed that shares one layer with a previously pushed image.
+/// It verifies that the shared layer is effectively mounted (not re-uploaded) by the registry
+/// and that the final image contains the correct combination of shared and new layers.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_push_with_partial_existing_layers() -> Result<()> {
+    setup_test_environment();
+    info!("Starting test_push_with_partial_existing_layers");
+
+    let (_running_registry, local_registry_host) = test_utils::setup_local_registry().await?;
+    let (shared_blob_cache, _temp_cache_dir) = setup_blob_cache()?;
+
+    let platform_os = "linux";
+    let platform_arch = Arch::ARM64;
+    let image_tag = "latest";
+    let image_namespace = "testpartial";
+
+    // Common Layer
+    let common_layer_content = "This is a common layer across images.";
+    let common_layer_path = "/app/common.txt";
+    info!("Creating common layer...");
+    let common_layer = Layer::builder()?
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .data(common_layer_path, common_layer_content.as_bytes(), None)?
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!("Common layer created: {}", common_layer.diff_id());
+
+    // Image A specific layer
+    let image_a_specific_content = "Content specific to Image A.";
+    let image_a_specific_path = "/app/image_a_only.txt";
+    info!("Creating Image A specific layer...");
+    let image_a_layer = Layer::builder()?
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .data(
+            image_a_specific_path,
+            image_a_specific_content.as_bytes(),
+            None,
+        )?
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!(
+        "Image A specific layer created: {}",
+        image_a_layer.diff_id()
+    );
+
+    // Build Image A
+    let image_a_repo = generate_unique_image_name();
+    let image_a_repo_namespaced = format!("{}/{}", image_namespace, image_a_repo);
+    let image_a_ref = format!(
+        "{}/{}:{}",
+        local_registry_host, image_a_repo_namespaced, image_tag
+    );
+    info!("Building Image A: {}", image_a_ref);
+    let (image_a, _) = Image::builder()
+        .from("ubuntu@sha256:736e224eff152057af468d34e0a495e57e7f70d274a012897d10461527f0ca55")
+        .platform(platform_os, &platform_arch)
+        .layer(common_layer)
+        .layer(image_a_layer)
+        .entrypoint(vec![
+            "/bin/sh".to_string(),
+            "-c".to_string(),
+            format!("echo \'--- Image A files ---\' && ls -la /app && echo \'--- Image A common content ---\' && cat {} && echo \'--- Image A specific content ---\' && cat {}", common_layer_path, image_a_specific_path),
+        ])
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!("Image A built. Pushing to {}", image_a_ref);
+    image_a
+        .push(&image_a_ref, &test_utils::test_push_options())
+        .await?;
+    info!("Image A pushed.");
+
+    // Image B specific layer
+    let image_b_specific_content = "Fresh content for Image B.";
+    let image_b_specific_path = "/app/image_b_only.txt";
+    info!("Creating Image B specific layer...");
+    let image_b_layer = Layer::builder()?
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .data(
+            image_b_specific_path,
+            image_b_specific_content.as_bytes(),
+            None,
+        )?
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!(
+        "Image B specific layer created: {}",
+        image_b_layer.diff_id()
+    );
+
+    // Rebuild common_layer for Image B to ensure identical logical layer
+    info!("Rebuilding common layer for Image B...");
+    let common_layer_for_b = Layer::builder()?
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .data(common_layer_path, common_layer_content.as_bytes(), None)?
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!(
+        "Common layer for Image B created: {}",
+        common_layer_for_b.diff_id()
+    );
+
+    // Build Image B (reuses common_layer logic)
+    let image_b_repo = generate_unique_image_name();
+    let image_b_repo_namespaced = format!("{}/{}", image_namespace, image_b_repo);
+    let image_b_ref = format!(
+        "{}/{}:{}",
+        local_registry_host, image_b_repo_namespaced, image_tag
+    );
+    info!("Building Image B: {}", image_b_ref);
+    let image_b_entrypoint_cmd = format!(
+        "echo \\\'Image B running\\\' && echo \\\'--- Image B files ---\\\' && ls -la /app && echo \\\'--- Image B common content ---\\\' && cat {} && echo \\\'--- Image B specific content ---\\\' && cat {} && echo \\\'--- End of Image B content ---\\\'",
+        common_layer_path,
+        image_b_specific_path
+    );
+    let (image_b, _) = Image::builder()
+        .from("ubuntu@sha256:736e224eff152057af468d34e0a495e57e7f70d274a012897d10461527f0ca55")
+        .platform(platform_os, &platform_arch)
+        .layer(common_layer_for_b) // Use the rebuilt common layer for image_b
+        .layer(image_b_layer)
+        .entrypoint(vec![
+            "/bin/sh".to_string(),
+            "-c".to_string(),
+            image_b_entrypoint_cmd.clone(),
+        ])
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!(
+        "Image B built. Pushing to {} (expecting common layer to be mounted)",
+        image_b_ref
+    );
+    image_b
+        .push(&image_b_ref, &test_utils::test_push_options())
+        .await?;
+    info!("Image B pushed.");
+
+    // Verification for Image B
+    let docker = Docker::connect_with_local_defaults().map_err(|e| Error::Generic {
+        message: format!("Failed to connect to Docker: {}", e),
+        source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+    })?;
+    pull_image_with_bollard(
+        &docker,
+        &local_registry_host,
+        &image_b_repo_namespaced,
+        image_tag,
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    let container_name_b = format!("{}-container", image_b_repo);
+    let guard_b = BollardContainerGuard::new(
+        &docker,
+        &image_b_ref,
+        container_name_b,
+        &platform_arch.to_string(),
+        None,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let logs_b = guard_b.logs().await?;
+    guard_b.wait_for_completion().await?;
+    guard_b.cleanup().await?;
+
+    let full_logs_b = logs_b.join("\n");
+    info!("Image B logs: {}", full_logs_b);
+    assert!(
+        full_logs_b.contains(common_layer_content),
+        "Image B logs should contain common layer content. Logs: {}",
+        full_logs_b
+    );
+    assert!(
+        full_logs_b.contains(image_b_specific_content),
+        "Image B logs should contain its specific content. Logs: {}",
+        full_logs_b
+    );
+    assert!(
+        !full_logs_b.contains(image_a_specific_content),
+        "Image B logs should NOT contain Image A specific content. Logs: {}",
+        full_logs_b
+    );
+
+    info!("test_push_with_partial_existing_layers completed successfully!");
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Tests a scenario where an image is pushed that consists entirely of layers already present
+/// in the registry (from a previous identical push). It verifies that this results in a
+/// manifest-only push, and the pulled image is correct.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_push_with_all_existing_layers() -> Result<()> {
+    setup_test_environment();
+    info!("Starting test_push_with_all_existing_layers");
+
+    let (_running_registry, local_registry_host) = test_utils::setup_local_registry().await?;
+    let (shared_blob_cache, _temp_cache_dir) = setup_blob_cache()?;
+
+    let platform_os = "linux";
+    let platform_arch = Arch::ARM64;
+    let image_tag = "latest";
+    let image_namespace = "testall";
+
+    // Layers for the image
+    let layer_x_content = "Content for Layer X";
+    let layer_x_path = "/app/layer_x.txt";
+    let layer_x = Layer::builder()?
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .data(layer_x_path, layer_x_content.as_bytes(), None)?
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+
+    let layer_y_content = "Content for Layer Y";
+    let layer_y_path = "/app/layer_y.txt";
+    let layer_y = Layer::builder()?
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .data(layer_y_path, layer_y_content.as_bytes(), None)?
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+
+    // Build and push Image C
+    let image_c_repo = generate_unique_image_name();
+    let image_c_repo_namespaced = format!("{}/{}", image_namespace, image_c_repo);
+    let image_c_ref = format!(
+        "{}/{}:{}",
+        local_registry_host, image_c_repo_namespaced, image_tag
+    );
+    let image_c_entrypoint_cmd = format!(
+        "echo \\\'Image C running\\\' && echo \\\'--- Image C files ---\\\' && ls -la /app && echo \\\'--- Layer X content ---\\\' && cat {} && echo \\\'--- Layer Y content ---\\\' && cat {} && echo \\\'--- End of Image C content ---\\\'",
+        layer_x_path, layer_y_path
+    );
+
+    info!("Building Image C: {}", image_c_ref);
+    let (image_c, _) = Image::builder()
+        .from("ubuntu@sha256:736e224eff152057af468d34e0a495e57e7f70d274a012897d10461527f0ca55")
+        .platform(platform_os, &platform_arch)
+        .layer(layer_x)
+        .layer(layer_y)
+        .entrypoint(vec![
+            "/bin/sh".to_string(),
+            "-c".to_string(),
+            image_c_entrypoint_cmd.clone(),
+        ])
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!("Image C built. Pushing to {}", image_c_ref);
+    image_c
+        .push(&image_c_ref, &test_utils::test_push_options())
+        .await?;
+    info!("Image C pushed.");
+
+    // Attempt to push Image C again (or an identical one)
+    info!(
+        "Building Image C Prime (identical to Image C): {}",
+        image_c_ref
+    );
+    // Rebuild layers for image_c_prime to ensure they are new Layer objects but logically identical
+    let layer_x_prime = Layer::builder()?
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .data(layer_x_path, layer_x_content.as_bytes(), None)?
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    let layer_y_prime = Layer::builder()?
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .data(layer_y_path, layer_y_content.as_bytes(), None)?
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+
+    let (image_c_prime, _) = Image::builder() // Rebuild to ensure it's a new "build" artifact
+        .from("ubuntu@sha256:736e224eff152057af468d34e0a495e57e7f70d274a012897d10461527f0ca55")
+        .platform(platform_os, &platform_arch)
+        .layer(layer_x_prime) // Use rebuilt layer_x_prime
+        .layer(layer_y_prime) // Use rebuilt layer_y_prime
+        .entrypoint(vec!["/bin/sh".to_string(), "-c".to_string(), image_c_entrypoint_cmd.clone()])
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone()) // Use same cache
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!("Image C Prime built. Re-pushing to {} (expecting all layers to be mounted, manifest only push)", image_c_ref);
+    image_c_prime
+        .push(&image_c_ref, &test_utils::test_push_options())
+        .await?;
+    info!("Image C Prime pushed (re-push).");
+
+    // Verification
+    let docker = Docker::connect_with_local_defaults().map_err(|e| Error::Generic {
+        message: format!("Failed to connect to Docker: {}", e),
+        source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+    })?;
+    pull_image_with_bollard(
+        &docker,
+        &local_registry_host,
+        &image_c_repo_namespaced,
+        image_tag,
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    let container_name_c = format!("{}-container", image_c_repo);
+    let guard_c = BollardContainerGuard::new(
+        &docker,
+        &image_c_ref,
+        container_name_c,
+        &platform_arch.to_string(),
+        None,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let logs_c = guard_c.logs().await?;
+    guard_c.wait_for_completion().await?;
+    guard_c.cleanup().await?;
+
+    let full_logs_c = logs_c.join("\n");
+    info!("Image C (after re-push) logs: {}", full_logs_c);
+    assert!(
+        full_logs_c.contains(layer_x_content),
+        "Logs should contain Layer X content. Logs: {}",
+        full_logs_c
+    );
+    assert!(
+        full_logs_c.contains(layer_y_content),
+        "Logs should contain Layer Y content. Logs: {}",
+        full_logs_c
+    );
+
+    info!("test_push_with_all_existing_layers completed successfully!");
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Tests the ability to push an image to a local registry using basic HTTP authentication.
+/// It verifies that the push operation succeeds with valid credentials and that the
+/// resulting image can be pulled and run, containing the correct content.
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_push_with_basic_authentication() -> Result<()> {
+    setup_test_environment();
+    info!("Starting test_push_with_basic_authentication");
+
+    // --- Manually set up registry with Basic Auth ---
+    info!("Setting up and running local container registry with Basic Auth...");
+    let mut users = HashMap::new();
+    users.insert(
+        "testuser".to_string(),
+        Secret::new("testpassword".to_string()),
+    );
+    let auth_provider = Arc::new(users);
+
+    let mut testing_registry = ContainerRegistry::builder()
+        .auth_provider(auth_provider)
+        .build_for_testing();
+    // Explicitly bind to 127.0.0.1:0 to get a random available port
+    testing_registry.bind(([127, 0, 0, 1], 0).into());
+    let _running_registry = testing_registry.run_in_background(); // Keep the guard
+    let local_registry_addr = _running_registry.bound_addr();
+    info!(
+        "Local container registry with Basic Auth listening on: {}",
+        local_registry_addr
+    );
+    // --- End of manual registry setup ---
+
+    let local_registry_host = format!("localhost:{}", local_registry_addr.port());
+    let (shared_blob_cache, _temp_cache_dir) = setup_blob_cache()?;
+
+    let platform_os = "linux";
+    let platform_arch = Arch::ARM64;
+    let image_tag = "auth";
+    let image_namespace = "testauth";
+
+    let layer_auth_content = "Authenticated push content!";
+    let layer_auth_path = "/app/auth_content.txt";
+    let layer_auth = Layer::builder()?
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .data(layer_auth_path, layer_auth_content.as_bytes(), None)?
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+
+    let image_d_repo = generate_unique_image_name();
+    let image_d_repo_namespaced = format!("{}/{}", image_namespace, image_d_repo);
+    let image_d_ref = format!(
+        "{}/{}:{}",
+        local_registry_host, image_d_repo_namespaced, image_tag
+    );
+    let image_d_entrypoint_cmd = format!("echo \'Auth Image Running\' && echo \'--- Auth Content ---\' && cat {} && echo \'--- End Auth Content ---\'", layer_auth_path);
+
+    info!("Building Image D for auth test: {}", image_d_ref);
+    let (image_d, _) = Image::builder()
+        .from("ubuntu@sha256:736e224eff152057af468d34e0a495e57e7f70d274a012897d10461527f0ca55")
+        .platform(platform_os, &platform_arch)
+        .layer(layer_auth)
+        .entrypoint(vec![
+            "/bin/sh".to_string(),
+            "-c".to_string(),
+            image_d_entrypoint_cmd.clone(),
+        ])
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+
+    info!(
+        "Image D built. Pushing with basic authentication to {}",
+        image_d_ref
+    );
+    let push_opts_auth = PushOptions {
+        auth: RegistryAuth::Basic("testuser".to_string(), "testpassword".to_string()),
+        protocol: ClientProtocol::Http,
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    image_d.push(&image_d_ref, &push_opts_auth).await?;
+    info!("Image D pushed with basic auth.");
+
+    // Verification
+    let docker = Docker::connect_with_local_defaults().map_err(|e| Error::Generic {
+        message: format!("Failed to connect to Docker: {}", e),
+        source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+    })?;
+    // Pull requires auth now because the test registry is configured with it.
+    // Modify pull_image_with_bollard to accept credentials or pull directly here.
+
+    info!(
+        "Pulling image {}/{}_tag:{} using Bollard with Auth...",
+        local_registry_host, image_d_repo_namespaced, image_tag
+    );
+    let bollard_registry_creds = bollard::auth::DockerCredentials {
+        username: Some("testuser".to_string()),
+        password: Some("testpassword".to_string()),
+        serveraddress: Some(format!("http://{}", local_registry_host)),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let bollard_from_image = format!("{}/{}", local_registry_host, image_d_repo_namespaced);
+    let mut pull_stream = docker.create_image(
+        Some(CreateImageOptions {
+            from_image: bollard_from_image,
+            tag: image_tag.to_string(),
+            ..Default::default()
+        }),
+        None,
+        Some(bollard_registry_creds),
+    );
+    while let Some(pull_result) = pull_stream.next().await {
+        match pull_result {
+            Ok(info_msg) => {
+                if let Some(status) = info_msg.status {
+                    debug!("Pull status: {}", status);
+                }
+                if let Some(progress) = info_msg.progress {
+                    debug!("Pull progress: {}", progress);
+                }
+            }
+            Err(e) => {
+                error!("Error during image pull: {:?}", e);
+                return Err(Error::ImagePull {
+                    image_ref: format!("{}/{}", local_registry_host, image_d_repo_namespaced),
+                    message: format!("Bollard image pull failed for tag {}: {}", image_tag, e),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+                });
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    info!(
+        "Image {}/{}:{} pulled successfully via Bollard with Auth.",
+        local_registry_host, image_d_repo_namespaced, image_tag
+    );
+
+    let container_name_d = format!("{}-container", image_d_repo);
+    let guard_d = BollardContainerGuard::new(
+        &docker,
+        &image_d_ref,
+        container_name_d,
+        &platform_arch.to_string(),
+        None,
+        None,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let logs_d = guard_d.logs().await?;
+    guard_d.wait_for_completion().await?;
+    guard_d.cleanup().await?;
+
+    let full_logs_d = logs_d.join("\n");
+    info!("Image D (auth test) logs: {}", full_logs_d);
+
+    assert!(
+        full_logs_d.contains(layer_auth_content),
+        "Logs should contain auth test content. Logs: {}",
+        full_logs_d
+    );
+
+    info!("test_push_with_basic_authentication completed successfully!");
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_executable_permission_error() -> Result<()> {
+    setup_test_environment();
+    info!("Starting test_executable_permission_error");
+
+    // 1. Setup local registry & blob cache
+    let (_running_registry, local_registry_host) = test_utils::setup_local_registry().await?;
+    let (shared_blob_cache, _temp_cache_dir) = setup_blob_cache()?;
+
+    // Setup image naming
+    let unique_repo_name = generate_unique_image_name();
+    let image_tag = "no-exec-test";
+    let image_namespace = "testnoexec";
+    let target_image_repo_namespaced = format!("{}/{}", image_namespace, unique_repo_name);
+    let target_image_ref = format!(
+        "{}/{}:{}",
+        local_registry_host, target_image_repo_namespaced, image_tag
+    );
+    info!("Target image for no-exec test: {}", target_image_ref);
+
+    // 2. Create a simple script and a layer without execute permissions
+    let script_content = "#!/bin/sh\necho \'Script executed!\'";
+    let script_path_in_container = "/app/test_script.sh";
+
+    info!("Creating layer with script, no execute permissions...");
+    let layer_script = Layer::builder()?
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .data(
+            script_path_in_container,
+            script_content.as_bytes(),
+            Some(0o644),
+        )? // Explicitly NO execute permission
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!(
+        "Script layer created. Diff ID: {}, Blob Digest: {}",
+        layer_script.diff_id(),
+        layer_script.blob_digest()
+    );
+
+    // 3. Build the image
+    let base_image =
+        "ubuntu@sha256:736e224eff152057af468d34e0a495e57e7f70d274a012897d10461527f0ca55"; // Using a common base
+    let platform_os = "linux";
+    let platform_arch = Arch::ARM64; // Match other tests, ensure base image compat
+    let entrypoint = vec![script_path_in_container.to_string()];
+
+    info!(
+        "Building image from base '{}' ({}/{}) with entrypoint: {:?}",
+        base_image, platform_os, platform_arch, entrypoint
+    );
+    let (image, _) = Image::builder()
+        .from(base_image)
+        .platform(platform_os, &platform_arch)
+        .layer(layer_script)
+        .entrypoint(entrypoint.clone())
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache)
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!(
+        "Image built. OCI Archive Path: {:?}, Config Digest: {}",
+        image.path(),
+        image.config_digest()
+    );
+
+    // 4. Push the image
+    info!("Pushing image to {}...", target_image_ref);
+    let push_opts = test_utils::test_push_options();
+    image.push(&target_image_ref, &push_opts).await?;
+    info!("Image pushed successfully to: {}", target_image_ref);
+
+    // 5. Bollard: Connect and Pull
+    info!("Connecting to Docker daemon via Bollard...");
+    let docker = Docker::connect_with_local_defaults().map_err(|e| Error::Generic {
+        message: format!("Failed to connect to Docker: {}", e),
+        source: Some(Box::new(e)),
+    })?;
+    pull_image_with_bollard(
+        &docker,
+        &local_registry_host,
+        &target_image_repo_namespaced,
+        image_tag,
+    )
+    .await?;
+
+    // 6. Bollard: Attempt to run container and expect failure
+    let container_name = format!("{}-no-exec-container", unique_repo_name);
+    info!(
+        "Attempting to create and start container '{}' (expected to fail or error)...",
+        container_name
+    );
+
+    // We expect container creation/start to fail or the container to error out quickly.
+    // The exact error might come during create_container, start_container, or container exit.
+    // Let's try to create, then start, and then check logs/status.
+
+    let container_config = bollard::container::Config {
+        image: Some(target_image_ref.as_str()),
+        tty: Some(true),
+        entrypoint: Some(entrypoint.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()).collect()),
+        ..Default::default()
+    };
+    let create_options = Some(CreateContainerOptions {
+        name: container_name.clone(),
+        platform: Some(platform_arch.to_string()),
+    });
+
+    let create_response_result = docker
+        .create_container(create_options.clone(), container_config.clone())
+        .await;
+
+    // If create succeeds, we'll try to start and then look for runtime errors.
+    // If create fails, the error might already indicate the problem.
+    // Bollard might not always give a permission error on create, rather on start or from runtime.
+
+    let container_id: String;
+    if let Ok(response) = create_response_result {
+        container_id = response.id;
+        info!(
+            "Container '{}' created with ID: {}",
+            container_name, container_id
+        );
+
+        // Attempt to start the container
+        let start_result = docker
+            .start_container(&container_id, None::<StartContainerOptions<String>>)
+            .await;
+        if let Err(e) = start_result {
+            info!("Container start failed as expected: {:?}", e.to_string());
+            // Docker might give an error like:
+            // "OCI runtime create failed: ... container_linux.go:380: starting container process caused: exec: "/app/test_script.sh": permission denied: unknown"
+            assert!(
+                e.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("permission denied")
+                    || e.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("exec format error")
+            );
+            // Clean up the created (but not started) container
+            docker
+                .remove_container(
+                    &container_id,
+                    Some(RemoveContainerOptions {
+                        force: true,
+                        ..Default::default()
+                    }),
+                )
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e_bollard| Error::Generic {
+                    message: format!(
+                        "Failed to remove container '{}' during cleanup: {}",
+                        container_id, e_bollard
+                    ),
+                    source: Some(Box::new(e_bollard)),
+                })?;
+            info!("test_executable_permission_error completed successfully (failure on start).");
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        info!(
+            "Container {} started (unexpectedly, will check logs/exit code).",
+            container_id
+        );
+
+        // If it somehow starts, wait for it and check exit code and logs.
+        let guard = BollardContainerGuard {
+            docker: &docker,
+            id: container_id.clone(),
+            name: container_name.clone(),
+        };
+
+        // Wait for completion - expect non-zero exit code
+        info!(
+            "Waiting for container {} to complete (expecting error)...",
+            guard.id()
+        );
+        let wait_options = Some(WaitContainerOptions {
+            condition: "not-running",
+        });
+        let mut wait_stream = guard.docker.wait_container(&guard.id, wait_options);
+        let wait_result = wait_stream.try_next().await;
+
+        let logs = guard.logs().await.unwrap_or_default();
+        let full_logs = logs.join("\n");
+        info!("Container logs: {}", full_logs);
+
+        // Process wait_result and logs BEFORE cleaning up the guard
+        match wait_result {
+            Ok(Some(response)) => {
+                info!(
+                    "Container {} exited with status code: {}",
+                    guard.id(),
+                    response.status_code
+                );
+                assert_ne!(
+                    response.status_code, 0,
+                    "Container should have failed (non-zero exit code). Logs: {}",
+                    full_logs
+                );
+                // Check logs for permission denied or similar
+                // The exact message can vary. "Permission denied" is common.
+                // Sometimes it can be "exec format error" if the shebang is problematic and it tries to run it directly.
+                let lower_logs = full_logs.to_lowercase();
+                assert!(
+                    lower_logs.contains("permission denied")
+                        || lower_logs.contains("exec format error"),
+                    "Expected 'permission denied' or 'exec format error' in logs. Found: {}",
+                    full_logs
+                );
+            }
+            Ok(None) => {
+                panic!("Did not receive container exit status for {}.", guard.id());
+            }
+            Err(e) => {
+                // This could be an error from the wait call itself, implies container problem.
+                info!("Error waiting for container: {}. This can be an indication of the execution failure.", e);
+                assert!(
+                    e.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("permission denied")
+                        || e.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("exec format error")
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        guard.cleanup().await?; // Cleanup guard AFTER all uses
+    } else if let Err(e) = create_response_result {
+        // Error during container creation itself
+        info!("Container creation failed as expected: {:?}", e.to_string());
+        // Example error: "container_linux.go:380: starting container process caused: exec: "/app/test_script.sh": permission denied"
+        // This is less common for Bollard; usually the error is on start or from runtime.
+        assert!(
+            e.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("permission denied")
+                || e.to_string().to_lowercase().contains("exec format error")
+        );
+    }
+
+    info!("test_executable_permission_error completed successfully!");
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn generate_unique_image_name() -> String {
+    let random_string: String = rng()
+        .sample_iter(&Alphanumeric)
+        .take(12)
+        .map(char::from)
+        .collect();
+    format!("dockdash-test-{}", random_string.to_lowercase())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_pull_policy_missing_uses_cache() -> Result<()> {
+    setup_test_environment();
+    info!("Starting test_pull_policy_missing_uses_cache");
+
+    // No local registry needed for this test, we pull from public Docker Hub.
+    let (shared_blob_cache, _temp_cache_dir) = setup_blob_cache()?;
+
+    let base_image_for_test = "alpine:latest";
+    info!("Base image for test: {}", base_image_for_test);
+
+    // 1. Perform a preliminary build with PullPolicy::Always to ensure the manifest is pulled from the registry and cached.
+    info!("Performing a preliminary build with PullPolicy::Always to ensure manifest for {} is cached.", base_image_for_test);
+    let (_pre_cache_image, pre_cache_diagnostics) = Image::builder()
+        .from(base_image_for_test)
+        .platform("linux", &Arch::Amd64) // Platform required by builder, choose common ones.
+        .pull_policy(PullPolicy::Always)
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    assert_eq!(
+        pre_cache_diagnostics.manifest_source,
+        ManifestSource::FromRegistry,
+        "Preliminary build should pull from registry"
+    );
+    info!(
+        "Preliminary build complete. Manifest for {} should now be cached.",
+        base_image_for_test
+    );
+
+    // 2. Build the image again with PullPolicy::Missing. This should use the cached manifest.
+    info!(
+        "Building image with PullPolicy::Missing, expecting cache hit for manifest: {}",
+        base_image_for_test
+    );
+    let (image_missing_policy, missing_diagnostics) = Image::builder()
+        .from(base_image_for_test)
+        .platform("linux", &Arch::Amd64)
+        .pull_policy(PullPolicy::Missing)
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone()) // Use the same cache
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!(
+        "Image with PullPolicy::Missing built. Config digest: {}",
+        image_missing_policy.config_digest()
+    );
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        missing_diagnostics.manifest_source,
+        ManifestSource::FromCache,
+        "PullPolicy::Missing should use cached manifest"
+    );
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_pull_policy_always_hits_registry() -> Result<()> {
+    setup_test_environment();
+    info!("Starting test_pull_policy_always_hits_registry");
+
+    // No local registry needed, we pull from public Docker Hub.
+    let (shared_blob_cache, _temp_cache_dir) = setup_blob_cache()?;
+
+    let base_image_for_test = "alpine:latest";
+    info!("Base image for test: {}", base_image_for_test);
+
+    // 1. Perform a preliminary build to ensure the manifest *could* be in the cache.
+    info!(
+        "Performing a preliminary build to ensure manifest for {} could be cached.",
+        base_image_for_test
+    );
+    let (_pre_cache_image, _pre_cache_diagnostics) = Image::builder() // Diagnostics not asserted here
+        .from(base_image_for_test)
+        .platform("linux", &Arch::Amd64)
+        .pull_policy(PullPolicy::Missing) // Or Always, doesn't matter much for pre-caching
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone())
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!(
+        "Preliminary build complete. Manifest for {} might be cached.",
+        base_image_for_test
+    );
+
+    // 2. Build the image again with PullPolicy::Always. This should ignore the cache and pull from the registry.
+    info!(
+        "Building image with PullPolicy::Always, expecting registry pull for manifest: {}",
+        base_image_for_test
+    );
+    let (image_always_policy, always_diagnostics) = Image::builder()
+        .from(base_image_for_test)
+        .platform("linux", &Arch::Amd64)
+        .pull_policy(PullPolicy::Always)
+        .blob_cache(shared_blob_cache.clone()) // Use the same cache
+        .build()
+        .await?;
+    info!(
+        "Image with PullPolicy::Always built. Config digest: {}",
+        image_always_policy.config_digest()
+    );
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        always_diagnostics.manifest_source,
+        ManifestSource::FromRegistry,
+        "PullPolicy::Always should pull from registry"
+    );
+
+    Ok(())
+}

From 9907b37629d0675c921eba30301d8e93571e8e60 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Sun, 8 Mar 2026 23:58:30 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 02/15] Fix CI: run unit tests only, integration tests require
 Docker

The integration tests in build_push_tests.rs need the test-utils feature
and a Docker daemon. Run only --lib tests in CI to avoid compilation errors.

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 .github/workflows/ci.yml | 2 +-
 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-)

diff --git a/.github/workflows/ci.yml b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
index 93d5e7d..8afd45e 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/ci.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
@@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ jobs:
       - uses: actions/checkout@v4
       - uses: dtolnay/rust-toolchain@stable
       - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
-      - run: cargo test
+      - run: cargo test --lib
 
   docs:
     name: Docs

From bb10da1bfba005d50b2a6120e6e2504da6ced84a Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Mon, 9 Mar 2026 00:05:27 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 03/15] Fix layer extraction to handle both gzip and zstd
 compression

The extract method was unconditionally applying zstd decompression to all
layers, but base image layers from registries are typically gzip-compressed.
Now checks the layer media type and uses the appropriate decompressor.

Also removes redundant gcr.io hostname checks in monolithic push detection.

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 Cargo.lock   |  1 +
 Cargo.toml   |  1 +
 src/image.rs | 43 ++++++++++++++++++-------------------------
 3 files changed, 20 insertions(+), 25 deletions(-)

diff --git a/Cargo.lock b/Cargo.lock
index ca23767..5b0e116 100644
--- a/Cargo.lock
+++ b/Cargo.lock
@@ -613,6 +613,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "container-registry",
  "dirs",
  "dotenvy",
+ "flate2",
  "futures-util",
  "oci-client",
  "oci-spec 0.6.8",
diff --git a/Cargo.toml b/Cargo.toml
index 0651085..42d92b4 100644
--- a/Cargo.toml
+++ b/Cargo.toml
@@ -28,6 +28,7 @@ cacache = { version = "13.1", default-features = false, features = ["tokio-runti
 container-registry = { version = "0.3", features = ["test-support"], optional = true }
 async-trait = "0.1"
 zstd = "0.13"
+flate2 = "1"
 
 [dev-dependencies]
 bollard = "0.18"
diff --git a/src/image.rs b/src/image.rs
index 3a01d92..14c8a0d 100644
--- a/src/image.rs
+++ b/src/image.rs
@@ -463,42 +463,38 @@ impl Image {
             let layer_data_vec = layer_data.to_vec();
             let target_dir_clone = target_dir.to_path_buf();
             let layer_digest = desc.digest().to_string();
+            let media_type = desc.media_type().to_string();
 
             // Extract in a blocking task since tar extraction is CPU-intensive
             tokio::task::spawn_blocking(move || -> Result<()> {
                 use std::io::Cursor;
                 use tar::Archive;
 
-                // Decompress zstd
                 let cursor = Cursor::new(layer_data_vec);
-                let decoder = zstd::Decoder::new(cursor).map_err(|e| {
-                    warn!(
-                        layer_digest = %layer_digest,
-                        error = %e,
-                        "Failed to create zstd decoder"
-                    );
-                    Error::Io {
+
+                // Decompress based on media type
+                if media_type.contains("+zstd") {
+                    let decoder = zstd::Decoder::new(cursor).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
                         message: format!(
                             "Failed to create zstd decoder for layer {}",
                             layer_digest
                         ),
                         source: e,
-                    }
-                })?;
-
-                // Extract tar
-                let mut tar_archive = Archive::new(decoder);
-                tar_archive.unpack(&target_dir_clone).map_err(|e| {
-                    warn!(
-                        layer_digest = %layer_digest,
-                        error = %e,
-                        "Failed to extract tar archive"
-                    );
-                    Error::Io {
+                    })?;
+                    let mut tar_archive = Archive::new(decoder);
+                    tar_archive.unpack(&target_dir_clone).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
                         message: format!("Failed to extract layer {}", layer_digest),
                         source: e,
-                    }
-                })?;
+                    })?;
+                } else {
+                    // Default to gzip (covers tar+gzip and docker legacy media types)
+                    let decoder = flate2::read::GzDecoder::new(cursor);
+                    let mut tar_archive = Archive::new(decoder);
+                    tar_archive.unpack(&target_dir_clone).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                        message: format!("Failed to extract layer {}", layer_digest),
+                        source: e,
+                    })?;
+                }
 
                 debug!(layer_digest = %layer_digest, "Layer extracted successfully");
                 Ok(())
@@ -1548,7 +1544,4 @@ fn is_registry_requiring_monolithic_push(registry_host: &str) -> bool {
     registry_host.ends_with("-docker.pkg.dev") // Google Artifact Registry
         || registry_host == "gcr.io"
         || registry_host.ends_with(".gcr.io") // Google Container Registry
-        || registry_host == "us.gcr.io"
-        || registry_host == "eu.gcr.io"
-        || registry_host == "asia.gcr.io"
 }

From b2f509292a5d74060bc2e9d14f4cc18653c44479 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Mon, 9 Mar 2026 00:10:24 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 04/15] Fix formatting in image extraction code

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 src/image.rs | 20 ++++++++++++--------
 1 file changed, 12 insertions(+), 8 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/image.rs b/src/image.rs
index 14c8a0d..bc7f789 100644
--- a/src/image.rs
+++ b/src/image.rs
@@ -482,18 +482,22 @@ impl Image {
                         source: e,
                     })?;
                     let mut tar_archive = Archive::new(decoder);
-                    tar_archive.unpack(&target_dir_clone).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
-                        message: format!("Failed to extract layer {}", layer_digest),
-                        source: e,
-                    })?;
+                    tar_archive
+                        .unpack(&target_dir_clone)
+                        .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                            message: format!("Failed to extract layer {}", layer_digest),
+                            source: e,
+                        })?;
                 } else {
                     // Default to gzip (covers tar+gzip and docker legacy media types)
                     let decoder = flate2::read::GzDecoder::new(cursor);
                     let mut tar_archive = Archive::new(decoder);
-                    tar_archive.unpack(&target_dir_clone).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
-                        message: format!("Failed to extract layer {}", layer_digest),
-                        source: e,
-                    })?;
+                    tar_archive
+                        .unpack(&target_dir_clone)
+                        .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                            message: format!("Failed to extract layer {}", layer_digest),
+                            source: e,
+                        })?;
                 }
 
                 debug!(layer_digest = %layer_digest, "Layer extracted successfully");

From 39fae858e0b77d207f8cd2d884acf62097e1a536 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Mon, 9 Mar 2026 00:15:13 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 05/15] Fix PR review issues: CMD preservation, dead branch,
 uncompressed tar

- Preserve base image CMD when only entrypoint is overridden (CMD is
  only cleared when entrypoint is explicitly set, matching Docker behavior)
- Remove dead branch in push code (layers_to_push.is_empty() was
  unreachable after the early return above)
- Handle uncompressed tar layers in extract (media types without +gzip
  or +zstd are now extracted as plain tar)

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 src/image.rs | 44 +++++++++++++++++++++++---------------------
 1 file changed, 23 insertions(+), 21 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/image.rs b/src/image.rs
index bc7f789..94c87fc 100644
--- a/src/image.rs
+++ b/src/image.rs
@@ -473,6 +473,11 @@ impl Image {
                 let cursor = Cursor::new(layer_data_vec);
 
                 // Decompress based on media type
+                let unpack_err = |e| Error::Io {
+                    message: format!("Failed to extract layer {}", layer_digest),
+                    source: e,
+                };
+
                 if media_type.contains("+zstd") {
                     let decoder = zstd::Decoder::new(cursor).map_err(|e| Error::Io {
                         message: format!(
@@ -481,23 +486,21 @@ impl Image {
                         ),
                         source: e,
                     })?;
-                    let mut tar_archive = Archive::new(decoder);
-                    tar_archive
+                    Archive::new(decoder)
                         .unpack(&target_dir_clone)
-                        .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
-                            message: format!("Failed to extract layer {}", layer_digest),
-                            source: e,
-                        })?;
-                } else {
-                    // Default to gzip (covers tar+gzip and docker legacy media types)
+                        .map_err(unpack_err)?;
+                } else if media_type.contains("+gzip")
+                    || media_type.contains("vnd.docker.image.rootfs")
+                {
                     let decoder = flate2::read::GzDecoder::new(cursor);
-                    let mut tar_archive = Archive::new(decoder);
-                    tar_archive
+                    Archive::new(decoder)
                         .unpack(&target_dir_clone)
-                        .map_err(|e| Error::Io {
-                            message: format!("Failed to extract layer {}", layer_digest),
-                            source: e,
-                        })?;
+                        .map_err(unpack_err)?;
+                } else {
+                    // Uncompressed tar
+                    Archive::new(cursor)
+                        .unpack(&target_dir_clone)
+                        .map_err(unpack_err)?;
                 }
 
                 debug!(layer_digest = %layer_digest, "Layer extracted successfully");
@@ -778,9 +781,7 @@ impl Image {
         info!("Pushing image (layers, config, manifest).");
 
         // Report that we're about to start the actual upload
-        let operation_text = if layers_to_push.is_empty() {
-            "All layers cached".to_string()
-        } else if total_push_size_bytes > 10 * 1024 * 1024 {
+        let operation_text = if total_push_size_bytes > 10 * 1024 * 1024 {
             format!(
                 "Uploading {:.1} MB in {} layers",
                 total_push_size_bytes as f64 / (1024.0 * 1024.0),
@@ -1324,11 +1325,14 @@ impl ImageBuilder {
             let mut proc_config = config.config().clone().unwrap_or_default();
             if let Some(entrypoint) = self.entrypoint {
                 proc_config.set_entrypoint(Some(entrypoint));
+                // Per Docker/OCI convention, setting entrypoint resets cmd
+                // unless the user also explicitly set cmd
+                if self.cmd.is_none() {
+                    proc_config.set_cmd(Some(vec![]));
+                }
             }
             if let Some(cmd) = self.cmd {
                 proc_config.set_cmd(Some(cmd));
-            } else {
-                proc_config.set_cmd(Some(vec![]));
             }
             if let Some(working_dir) = self.working_dir {
                 proc_config.set_working_dir(Some(working_dir));
@@ -1362,8 +1366,6 @@ impl ImageBuilder {
             }
             if let Some(cmd) = self.cmd {
                 config_builder = config_builder.cmd(cmd);
-            } else {
-                config_builder = config_builder.cmd(Vec::<String>::new());
             }
             if let Some(working_dir) = self.working_dir {
                 config_builder = config_builder.working_dir(working_dir);

From 64f07991952e27df29ffd25581b85eb6dd30e854 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Mon, 9 Mar 2026 00:23:02 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 06/15] Fix Docker layer media type detection, CMD reset, and
 platform warnings

- Distinguish gzip vs uncompressed Docker layers by checking for "gzip"
  in media type instead of matching all rootfs media types as gzip
- Reset CMD to None (not empty array) when entrypoint overrides it,
  matching OCI spec semantics
- Warn when only one of platform_os/platform_arch is set in
  PullAndExtractOptions

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 src/image.rs | 17 +++++++++++------
 1 file changed, 11 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/image.rs b/src/image.rs
index 94c87fc..5598218 100644
--- a/src/image.rs
+++ b/src/image.rs
@@ -291,10 +291,17 @@ impl Image {
             .from(image_ref)
             .pull_policy(options.pull_policy);
 
-        if let Some(os) = options.platform_os {
-            if let Some(arch) = options.platform_arch {
+        match (options.platform_os, options.platform_arch) {
+            (Some(os), Some(arch)) => {
                 builder = builder.platform(&os, &arch);
             }
+            (Some(_), None) => {
+                warn!("platform_os set without platform_arch; platform filter will not be applied");
+            }
+            (None, Some(_)) => {
+                warn!("platform_arch set without platform_os; platform filter will not be applied");
+            }
+            (None, None) => {}
         }
 
         if let Some(cache) = options.blob_cache {
@@ -489,9 +496,7 @@ impl Image {
                     Archive::new(decoder)
                         .unpack(&target_dir_clone)
                         .map_err(unpack_err)?;
-                } else if media_type.contains("+gzip")
-                    || media_type.contains("vnd.docker.image.rootfs")
-                {
+                } else if media_type.contains("+gzip") || media_type.contains("gzip") {
                     let decoder = flate2::read::GzDecoder::new(cursor);
                     Archive::new(decoder)
                         .unpack(&target_dir_clone)
@@ -1328,7 +1333,7 @@ impl ImageBuilder {
                 // Per Docker/OCI convention, setting entrypoint resets cmd
                 // unless the user also explicitly set cmd
                 if self.cmd.is_none() {
-                    proc_config.set_cmd(Some(vec![]));
+                    proc_config.set_cmd(None);
                 }
             }
             if let Some(cmd) = self.cmd {

From 480ff86bdaa1129a43c822d545864cf9b88e9d29 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 10 Mar 2026 17:39:48 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 07/15] Fix Greptile review issues: stale dir cache, credential
 leakage, debug print

- Record per-file metadata when adding directories to layers so the
  input-based cache key reflects actual directory contents (prevents
  stale cache hits when files inside a directory change)
- Scope DOCKER_USERNAME/DOCKER_PASSWORD env vars to Docker Hub only,
  preventing credential leakage to unrelated registries
- Remove leftover eprintln! debug statement in layer cache miss path
- Document self-mount blob existence check workaround (oci-client
  lacks a HEAD blob API)

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 Cargo.lock   |  1 +
 Cargo.toml   |  1 +
 src/image.rs | 41 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++---------
 src/layer.rs | 60 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++-------
 4 files changed, 85 insertions(+), 18 deletions(-)

diff --git a/Cargo.lock b/Cargo.lock
index 5b0e116..db742bf 100644
--- a/Cargo.lock
+++ b/Cargo.lock
@@ -631,6 +631,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "tracing",
  "tracing-subscriber",
  "tracing-test",
+ "walkdir",
  "zstd",
 ]
 
diff --git a/Cargo.toml b/Cargo.toml
index 42d92b4..11d12b5 100644
--- a/Cargo.toml
+++ b/Cargo.toml
@@ -29,6 +29,7 @@ container-registry = { version = "0.3", features = ["test-support"], optional =
 async-trait = "0.1"
 zstd = "0.13"
 flate2 = "1"
+walkdir = "2"
 
 [dev-dependencies]
 bollard = "0.18"
diff --git a/src/image.rs b/src/image.rs
index 5598218..677edd8 100644
--- a/src/image.rs
+++ b/src/image.rs
@@ -683,17 +683,23 @@ impl Image {
             let digest_str = desc.digest().to_string();
             let mut should_skip_upload = false;
 
-            debug!(layer_digest = %digest_str, "Attempting to mount layer.");
+            // oci-client does not expose a HEAD /v2/<name>/blobs/<digest> API,
+            // so we use a self-mount (same source and destination repo) as a blob
+            // existence check. Per the OCI Distribution Spec, registries that
+            // support cross-repo mount will return 201 if the blob already exists
+            // in the target repo. If the registry rejects the self-mount, we fall
+            // through to the upload path.
+            debug!(layer_digest = %digest_str, "Checking if layer already exists via self-mount.");
             match oci_client
                 .mount_blob(&push_ref, &push_ref, &digest_str)
                 .await
             {
                 Ok(_) => {
-                    info!(layer_digest = %digest_str, "Layer successfully mounted (OCI 201).");
+                    info!(layer_digest = %digest_str, "Layer already exists in registry (mount returned 201).");
                     should_skip_upload = true;
                 }
                 Err(e) => {
-                    debug!(layer_digest = %digest_str, error = %e, "Layer mount failed. Will upload.");
+                    debug!(layer_digest = %digest_str, error = %e, "Self-mount failed, layer will be uploaded.");
                 }
             }
 
@@ -1494,27 +1500,42 @@ impl ImageBuilder {
 }
 
 /// Determines the RegistryAuth by trying environment variables and falling back to Anonymous.
+///
+/// The `DOCKER_USERNAME`/`DOCKER_PASSWORD` env vars are only applied when the target
+/// registry is Docker Hub (`index.docker.io` / `registry-1.docker.io`). For all other
+/// registries, anonymous auth is used unless credentials are provided via the
+/// `PushOptions::auth` field.
 fn determine_registry_auth(reference: &Reference) -> RegistryAuth {
-    let host_for_logging = reference.resolve_registry(); // Still useful for logging
+    let registry_host = reference.resolve_registry();
 
-    let auth = match (env::var("DOCKER_USERNAME"), env::var("DOCKER_PASSWORD")) {
+    let is_docker_hub = registry_host == "index.docker.io"
+        || registry_host == "registry-1.docker.io"
+        || registry_host == "docker.io";
+
+    if !is_docker_hub {
+        info!(
+            "Registry {} is not Docker Hub. Using anonymous auth (provide explicit auth via PushOptions for authenticated access).",
+            registry_host
+        );
+        return RegistryAuth::Anonymous;
+    }
+
+    match (env::var("DOCKER_USERNAME"), env::var("DOCKER_PASSWORD")) {
         (Ok(username), Ok(password)) if !username.is_empty() && !password.is_empty() => {
             info!(
                 "Using Docker credentials from DOCKER_USERNAME/PASSWORD env vars for {}",
-                host_for_logging
+                registry_host
             );
             RegistryAuth::Basic(username, password)
         }
         _ => {
             info!(
                 "DOCKER_USERNAME and/or DOCKER_PASSWORD not set or empty. Falling back to anonymous auth for {}.",
-                host_for_logging
+                registry_host
             );
             RegistryAuth::Anonymous
         }
-    };
-
-    auth
+    }
 }
 
 /// Determines whether to use monolithic push based on the policy and registry hostname.
diff --git a/src/layer.rs b/src/layer.rs
index 6cf4b3f..f359e43 100644
--- a/src/layer.rs
+++ b/src/layer.rs
@@ -214,13 +214,58 @@ impl LayerBuilder {
                 }
             })?;
 
-        self.file_metadata.push(FileMetadata {
-            archive_path: normalized_ap,
-            size: 0,
-            mtime: 0,
-            mode: 0o755,
-            is_dir: true,
-        });
+        // Walk the source directory and record metadata for every file,
+        // so the input-based cache key captures actual directory contents.
+        for entry in walkdir::WalkDir::new(dp_ref).sort_by_file_name() {
+            let entry = entry.map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                source: e.into(),
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to walk directory {} for cache key metadata",
+                    dp_ref.display()
+                ),
+            })?;
+            let entry_metadata = entry.metadata().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
+                source: e.into(),
+                message: format!(
+                    "Failed to get metadata for {}",
+                    entry.path().display()
+                ),
+            })?;
+            let relative = entry
+                .path()
+                .strip_prefix(dp_ref)
+                .unwrap_or(entry.path());
+            let archive_entry_path = normalized_ap.join(relative);
+
+            let mtime = entry_metadata
+                .modified()
+                .map(|t| {
+                    t.duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH)
+                        .unwrap_or_default()
+                        .as_secs()
+                })
+                .unwrap_or(0);
+
+            let mode = {
+                #[cfg(unix)]
+                {
+                    use std::os::unix::fs::PermissionsExt;
+                    entry_metadata.permissions().mode()
+                }
+                #[cfg(not(unix))]
+                {
+                    if entry_metadata.is_dir() { 0o755 } else { 0o644 }
+                }
+            };
+
+            self.file_metadata.push(FileMetadata {
+                archive_path: archive_entry_path,
+                size: entry_metadata.len(),
+                mtime,
+                mode,
+                is_dir: entry_metadata.is_dir(),
+            });
+        }
 
         debug!("Successfully added directory to layer.");
         Ok(self)
@@ -466,7 +511,6 @@ impl LayerBuilder {
         }
 
         // Input-based cache miss - finalize the tar and try content-based cache
-        eprintln!("[DEBUG] INPUT CACHE MISS for input_key={}", input_key);
         debug!("Input-based cache miss, finalizing tar");
 
         // Finalize the tar writer, ensuring all data is flushed and the file is closed.

From 8a542faaaef888c51a073f4ad1dfbe6993a5b826 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 10 Mar 2026 17:55:50 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 08/15] Fix remaining review issues: whiteout handling, error
 dedup, constant dedup

- Handle OCI/Docker whiteout files (.wh.<name> and .wh..wh..opq)
  during layer extraction so deleted files from prior layers are
  properly removed from the merged filesystem
- Fix duplicate error message in From<io::Error> impl that produced
  "I/O error: Permission denied: Permission denied"
- Deduplicate IMAGE_LAYER_ZSTD_MEDIA_TYPE constant into lib.rs

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 src/error.rs |  2 +-
 src/image.rs | 83 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++--------
 src/layer.rs |  3 +-
 src/lib.rs   |  3 ++
 4 files changed, 75 insertions(+), 16 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/error.rs b/src/error.rs
index fd0b458..f8652af 100644
--- a/src/error.rs
+++ b/src/error.rs
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ pub type Result<T, E = Error> = std::result::Result<T, E>;
 impl From<std::io::Error> for Error {
     fn from(err: std::io::Error) -> Self {
         Error::Io {
-            message: err.to_string(),
+            message: "An I/O error occurred".to_string(),
             source: err,
         }
     }
diff --git a/src/image.rs b/src/image.rs
index 677edd8..fd52688 100644
--- a/src/image.rs
+++ b/src/image.rs
@@ -14,8 +14,7 @@ use oci_client::{
     Reference, RegistryOperation,
 };
 
-/// OCI media type for zstd-compressed tar layers
-const IMAGE_LAYER_ZSTD_MEDIA_TYPE: &str = "application/vnd.oci.image.layer.v1.tar+zstd";
+use crate::IMAGE_LAYER_ZSTD_MEDIA_TYPE;
 use oci_spec::image::Arch;
 use oci_spec::image::{ImageConfiguration, ImageManifest as SpecImageManifest};
 use ocipkg::image::Image as _;
@@ -479,8 +478,8 @@ impl Image {
 
                 let cursor = Cursor::new(layer_data_vec);
 
-                // Decompress based on media type
-                let unpack_err = |e| Error::Io {
+                // Create the appropriate archive reader based on media type
+                let extract_err = |e: std::io::Error| Error::Io {
                     message: format!("Failed to extract layer {}", layer_digest),
                     source: e,
                 };
@@ -493,19 +492,16 @@ impl Image {
                         ),
                         source: e,
                     })?;
-                    Archive::new(decoder)
-                        .unpack(&target_dir_clone)
-                        .map_err(unpack_err)?;
+                    extract_layer_with_whiteouts(Archive::new(decoder), &target_dir_clone)
+                        .map_err(extract_err)?;
                 } else if media_type.contains("+gzip") || media_type.contains("gzip") {
                     let decoder = flate2::read::GzDecoder::new(cursor);
-                    Archive::new(decoder)
-                        .unpack(&target_dir_clone)
-                        .map_err(unpack_err)?;
+                    extract_layer_with_whiteouts(Archive::new(decoder), &target_dir_clone)
+                        .map_err(extract_err)?;
                 } else {
                     // Uncompressed tar
-                    Archive::new(cursor)
-                        .unpack(&target_dir_clone)
-                        .map_err(unpack_err)?;
+                    extract_layer_with_whiteouts(Archive::new(cursor), &target_dir_clone)
+                        .map_err(extract_err)?;
                 }
 
                 debug!(layer_digest = %layer_digest, "Layer extracted successfully");
@@ -1570,6 +1566,67 @@ fn determine_use_monolithic_push(policy: &MonolithicPushPolicy, reference: &Refe
     }
 }
 
+/// Extracts a tar archive layer while handling OCI/Docker whiteout files.
+///
+/// Whiteout files signal deletions from prior layers:
+/// - `.wh.<name>` in a directory means `<name>` should be deleted
+/// - `.wh..wh..opq` means the containing directory is opaque (all prior contents deleted)
+fn extract_layer_with_whiteouts<R: std::io::Read>(
+    mut archive: tar::Archive<R>,
+    target_dir: &Path,
+) -> std::io::Result<()> {
+    for entry_result in archive.entries()? {
+        let mut entry = entry_result?;
+        let entry_path = entry.path()?.into_owned();
+
+        let file_name = match entry_path.file_name().and_then(|n| n.to_str()) {
+            Some(name) => name.to_string(),
+            None => {
+                // No file name (e.g., root entry) — just unpack normally
+                entry.unpack_in(target_dir)?;
+                continue;
+            }
+        };
+
+        if file_name == ".wh..wh..opq" {
+            // Opaque whiteout: delete all existing contents in the parent directory
+            let parent = target_dir.join(
+                entry_path
+                    .parent()
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| Path::new("")),
+            );
+            if parent.is_dir() {
+                for child in std_fs::read_dir(&parent)? {
+                    let child = child?;
+                    let child_path = child.path();
+                    if child_path.is_dir() {
+                        std_fs::remove_dir_all(&child_path)?;
+                    } else {
+                        std_fs::remove_file(&child_path)?;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        } else if let Some(target_name) = file_name.strip_prefix(".wh.") {
+            // Regular whiteout: delete the specific file/directory
+            let target_path = target_dir.join(
+                entry_path
+                    .parent()
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| Path::new(""))
+                    .join(target_name),
+            );
+            if target_path.is_dir() {
+                let _ = std_fs::remove_dir_all(&target_path);
+            } else {
+                let _ = std_fs::remove_file(&target_path);
+            }
+        } else {
+            // Normal entry — extract it
+            entry.unpack_in(target_dir)?;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 /// Checks if a registry requires monolithic push based on its hostname.
 fn is_registry_requiring_monolithic_push(registry_host: &str) -> bool {
     // Google Artifact Registry and Container Registry require monolithic push
diff --git a/src/layer.rs b/src/layer.rs
index f359e43..f11af1a 100644
--- a/src/layer.rs
+++ b/src/layer.rs
@@ -11,8 +11,7 @@ use tempfile::NamedTempFile;
 use tokio::task;
 use tracing::{debug, info, instrument, warn};
 
-/// OCI media type for zstd-compressed tar layers
-const IMAGE_LAYER_ZSTD_MEDIA_TYPE: &str = "application/vnd.oci.image.layer.v1.tar+zstd";
+use crate::IMAGE_LAYER_ZSTD_MEDIA_TYPE;
 
 /// Represents a single layer in an OCI image.
 ///
diff --git a/src/lib.rs b/src/lib.rs
index 14a2843..519c500 100644
--- a/src/lib.rs
+++ b/src/lib.rs
@@ -32,6 +32,9 @@
 //! # }
 //! ```
 
+/// OCI media type for zstd-compressed tar layers
+pub(crate) const IMAGE_LAYER_ZSTD_MEDIA_TYPE: &str = "application/vnd.oci.image.layer.v1.tar+zstd";
+
 mod error;
 pub use error::*;
 

From 4523e38993ba3c80598efe0eb434c68c4cd12233 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 10 Mar 2026 18:11:58 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 09/15] Propagate real IO errors during whiteout deletion,
 ignore only NotFound

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 src/image.rs | 11 ++++++++---
 1 file changed, 8 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/image.rs b/src/image.rs
index fd52688..fe48689 100644
--- a/src/image.rs
+++ b/src/image.rs
@@ -1614,10 +1614,15 @@ fn extract_layer_with_whiteouts<R: std::io::Read>(
                     .unwrap_or_else(|| Path::new(""))
                     .join(target_name),
             );
-            if target_path.is_dir() {
-                let _ = std_fs::remove_dir_all(&target_path);
+            let remove_result = if target_path.is_dir() {
+                std_fs::remove_dir_all(&target_path)
             } else {
-                let _ = std_fs::remove_file(&target_path);
+                std_fs::remove_file(&target_path)
+            };
+            if let Err(e) = remove_result {
+                if e.kind() != std::io::ErrorKind::NotFound {
+                    return Err(e);
+                }
             }
         } else {
             // Normal entry — extract it

From aba55584eba60cb5e300ff909a7911f621ced150 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 10 Mar 2026 18:44:31 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 10/15] Fix manifest cache key missing platform and data()
 cache key missing content

- Include OS and arch in manifest cache key (manifest-v2:{ref}:{os}:{arch})
  so multi-platform builds don't serve wrong cached manifests
- Hash in-memory content in data() FileMetadata so same-size blobs
  at the same path produce different input cache keys

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 src/image.rs |  7 ++++++-
 src/layer.rs | 17 ++++++++++++++++-
 2 files changed, 22 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/image.rs b/src/image.rs
index fe48689..d03de5f 100644
--- a/src/image.rs
+++ b/src/image.rs
@@ -1096,7 +1096,12 @@ impl ImageBuilder {
                 }
             };
 
-            let manifest_cache_key = format!("manifest-v1:{}", base_ref.whole());
+            let manifest_cache_key = format!(
+                "manifest-v2:{}:{}:{}",
+                base_ref.whole(),
+                target_os_for_build.as_str(),
+                target_arch_for_build,
+            );
             let manifest_source_temp: ManifestSource;
 
             let (base_image_manifest_resolved, resolved_manifest_digest_str_temp) = if pull_policy
diff --git a/src/layer.rs b/src/layer.rs
index f11af1a..bfa1dd2 100644
--- a/src/layer.rs
+++ b/src/layer.rs
@@ -65,6 +65,8 @@ struct FileMetadata {
     mode: u32,
     /// Whether this is a directory
     is_dir: bool,
+    /// Optional content hash for in-memory data (where mtime is meaningless)
+    content_hash: Option<[u8; 32]>,
 }
 
 /// Builder for creating `Layer` instances.
@@ -141,12 +143,15 @@ impl LayerBuilder {
         sorted_metadata.sort_by(|a, b| a.archive_path.cmp(&b.archive_path));
 
         for meta in &sorted_metadata {
-            // Hash: path | size | mtime | mode | is_dir
+            // Hash: path | size | mtime | mode | is_dir | content_hash
             hasher.update(meta.archive_path.to_string_lossy().as_bytes());
             hasher.update(meta.size.to_le_bytes());
             hasher.update(meta.mtime.to_le_bytes());
             hasher.update(meta.mode.to_le_bytes());
             hasher.update([meta.is_dir as u8]);
+            if let Some(ref hash) = meta.content_hash {
+                hasher.update(hash);
+            }
         }
 
         format!("layer-input-{:x}", hasher.finalize())
@@ -263,6 +268,7 @@ impl LayerBuilder {
                 mtime,
                 mode,
                 is_dir: entry_metadata.is_dir(),
+                content_hash: None,
             });
         }
 
@@ -346,6 +352,7 @@ impl LayerBuilder {
                 .unwrap_or(0),
             mode: file_mode,
             is_dir: false,
+            content_hash: None,
         });
 
         if let Some(new_mode) = mode {
@@ -437,12 +444,20 @@ impl LayerBuilder {
                 }
             })?;
 
+        // Hash in-memory content so the input cache key distinguishes
+        // different data at the same path/size (mtime is always 0 here).
+        let content_hash: [u8; 32] = {
+            use sha2::Digest;
+            Sha256::digest(content).into()
+        };
+
         self.file_metadata.push(FileMetadata {
             archive_path: normalized_ap,
             size: content.len() as u64,
             mtime: 0,
             mode: mode.unwrap_or(0o644),
             is_dir: false,
+            content_hash: Some(content_hash),
         });
 
         debug!("Successfully added data to layer.");

From 86fe43abc276f43dccc3a882264ad5f9f8d0397b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 10 Mar 2026 18:50:55 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 11/15] Log warning when tar entry path traversal is blocked
 during extraction

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 src/image.rs | 10 ++++++++--
 1 file changed, 8 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/image.rs b/src/image.rs
index d03de5f..c969295 100644
--- a/src/image.rs
+++ b/src/image.rs
@@ -1630,8 +1630,14 @@ fn extract_layer_with_whiteouts<R: std::io::Read>(
                 }
             }
         } else {
-            // Normal entry — extract it
-            entry.unpack_in(target_dir)?;
+            // Normal entry — extract it. unpack_in returns false if the
+            // path would escape target_dir (path traversal guard).
+            if !entry.unpack_in(target_dir)? {
+                warn!(
+                    path = %entry_path.display(),
+                    "Skipping tar entry: path escapes target directory"
+                );
+            }
         }
     }
     Ok(())

From 9da8b6282eefc9b7dc6f352520b9977190efde35 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 11 Mar 2026 00:42:44 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 12/15] Revert Docker auth to apply to all registries and
 remove unused From<io::Error>
MIME-Version: 1.0
Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8
Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit

The Docker Hub-only scoping of DOCKER_USERNAME/DOCKER_PASSWORD was a
usability regression — CI/CD users commonly set these for any registry.
The From<io::Error> impl was unused since all call sites construct
Error::Io with contextual messages; removing it enforces that pattern.
Also applies rustfmt formatting fixes.

Co-Authored-By: Claude Sonnet 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 src/error.rs |  9 ---------
 src/image.rs | 24 +++---------------------
 src/layer.rs | 16 +++++++---------
 3 files changed, 10 insertions(+), 39 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/error.rs b/src/error.rs
index f8652af..8d474c2 100644
--- a/src/error.rs
+++ b/src/error.rs
@@ -62,15 +62,6 @@ pub enum Error {
 
 pub type Result<T, E = Error> = std::result::Result<T, E>;
 
-impl From<std::io::Error> for Error {
-    fn from(err: std::io::Error) -> Self {
-        Error::Io {
-            message: "An I/O error occurred".to_string(),
-            source: err,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
 impl Error {
     /// Checks if this error is due to a manifest not being found in the registry.
     /// This is used to determine if we should retry with a fallback base image.
diff --git a/src/image.rs b/src/image.rs
index c969295..5a9a78b 100644
--- a/src/image.rs
+++ b/src/image.rs
@@ -1502,25 +1502,11 @@ impl ImageBuilder {
 
 /// Determines the RegistryAuth by trying environment variables and falling back to Anonymous.
 ///
-/// The `DOCKER_USERNAME`/`DOCKER_PASSWORD` env vars are only applied when the target
-/// registry is Docker Hub (`index.docker.io` / `registry-1.docker.io`). For all other
-/// registries, anonymous auth is used unless credentials are provided via the
-/// `PushOptions::auth` field.
+/// Note: `DOCKER_USERNAME`/`DOCKER_PASSWORD` env vars are applied to all registries.
+/// For per-registry auth control, use the `auth` field on `PushOptions` or `ImageBuilder`.
 fn determine_registry_auth(reference: &Reference) -> RegistryAuth {
     let registry_host = reference.resolve_registry();
 
-    let is_docker_hub = registry_host == "index.docker.io"
-        || registry_host == "registry-1.docker.io"
-        || registry_host == "docker.io";
-
-    if !is_docker_hub {
-        info!(
-            "Registry {} is not Docker Hub. Using anonymous auth (provide explicit auth via PushOptions for authenticated access).",
-            registry_host
-        );
-        return RegistryAuth::Anonymous;
-    }
-
     match (env::var("DOCKER_USERNAME"), env::var("DOCKER_PASSWORD")) {
         (Ok(username), Ok(password)) if !username.is_empty() && !password.is_empty() => {
             info!(
@@ -1595,11 +1581,7 @@ fn extract_layer_with_whiteouts<R: std::io::Read>(
 
         if file_name == ".wh..wh..opq" {
             // Opaque whiteout: delete all existing contents in the parent directory
-            let parent = target_dir.join(
-                entry_path
-                    .parent()
-                    .unwrap_or_else(|| Path::new("")),
-            );
+            let parent = target_dir.join(entry_path.parent().unwrap_or_else(|| Path::new("")));
             if parent.is_dir() {
                 for child in std_fs::read_dir(&parent)? {
                     let child = child?;
diff --git a/src/layer.rs b/src/layer.rs
index bfa1dd2..ca27ea6 100644
--- a/src/layer.rs
+++ b/src/layer.rs
@@ -230,15 +230,9 @@ impl LayerBuilder {
             })?;
             let entry_metadata = entry.metadata().map_err(|e| Error::Io {
                 source: e.into(),
-                message: format!(
-                    "Failed to get metadata for {}",
-                    entry.path().display()
-                ),
+                message: format!("Failed to get metadata for {}", entry.path().display()),
             })?;
-            let relative = entry
-                .path()
-                .strip_prefix(dp_ref)
-                .unwrap_or(entry.path());
+            let relative = entry.path().strip_prefix(dp_ref).unwrap_or(entry.path());
             let archive_entry_path = normalized_ap.join(relative);
 
             let mtime = entry_metadata
@@ -258,7 +252,11 @@ impl LayerBuilder {
                 }
                 #[cfg(not(unix))]
                 {
-                    if entry_metadata.is_dir() { 0o755 } else { 0o644 }
+                    if entry_metadata.is_dir() {
+                        0o755
+                    } else {
+                        0o644
+                    }
                 }
             };
 

From 3ed949b9516791ffc467129651d560521fc0307a Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 12 Mar 2026 17:25:49 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 13/15] Switch release trigger from tag push to GitHub Release
 published event

Replace push: tags: v* with release: types: [published] so releases
require an explicit publish action, allowing draft review before the
pipeline fires. Remove the github-release job since the release already
exists when the workflow runs.

Co-Authored-By: Claude Sonnet 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 .github/workflows/release.yml | 15 ++-------------
 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 13 deletions(-)

diff --git a/.github/workflows/release.yml b/.github/workflows/release.yml
index fd683cd..f766c0b 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/release.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/release.yml
@@ -1,9 +1,8 @@
 name: Release
 
 on:
-  push:
-    tags:
-      - "v*"
+  release:
+    types: [published]
 
 permissions:
   contents: write
@@ -23,13 +22,3 @@ jobs:
         env:
           CARGO_REGISTRY_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.CARGO_REGISTRY_TOKEN }}
 
-  github-release:
-    name: GitHub Release
-    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
-    needs: publish
-    steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
-      - name: Create GitHub Release
-        uses: softprops/action-gh-release@v2
-        with:
-          generate_release_notes: true

From d7a94b20ea0fd452e294943482c1cafaf60a040d Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 12 Mar 2026 17:32:25 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 14/15] Downgrade permissions to contents: read

The github-release job that wrote back to GitHub was removed, so
contents: write is no longer needed.

Co-Authored-By: Claude Sonnet 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 .github/workflows/release.yml | 2 +-
 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-)

diff --git a/.github/workflows/release.yml b/.github/workflows/release.yml
index e20949d..cfede41 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/release.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/release.yml
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ on:
     types: [published]
 
 permissions:
-  contents: write
+  contents: read
 
 env:
   CARGO_TERM_COLOR: always

From 47a1e14f4aadef8236ef383189920302ec8ea4e7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Alon Gubkin <alon.gubkin@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 12 Mar 2026 21:35:45 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 15/15] Use CRATES_IO_TOKEN org secret for cargo publish

Co-Authored-By: Claude Sonnet 4.6 <noreply@anthropic.com>
---
 .github/workflows/release.yml | 2 +-
 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-)

diff --git a/.github/workflows/release.yml b/.github/workflows/release.yml
index cfede41..6070d20 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/release.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/release.yml
@@ -20,4 +20,4 @@ jobs:
       - uses: Swatinem/rust-cache@v2
       - run: cargo publish
         env:
-          CARGO_REGISTRY_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.CARGO_REGISTRY_TOKEN }}
+          CARGO_REGISTRY_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.CRATES_IO_TOKEN }}